This problem is insufficiently studied due to the comparative lag of world Mongolian studies from other Orientalist areas, in particular, sinology. Therefore, the Sinocentric point of view, based on Chinese written monuments, continues to be dominant in world historical science.

An important organ of statehood in Central Asia was the congress of representatives of the nobility (Mong. Their huradai). They were held at regular intervals and divided by the number of participants into small and large ones. At the congresses, cases of national significance were considered. The congresses were legislative bodies. They elected the khan-kagan and other rulers. Khuradai (huruldai) were an essential instrument of state administration, although they did not have the supreme power that was assigned to the sovereign.

The congresses are described in almost all sources on the history of the peoples of Central Asia, starting from antiquity. They are descended from the ancestral system and are closely connected with the institution of elders, which has been preserved along with other new forms of organization.

The Huns held annual congresses. Congresses are known among the Xianbi: in 386, Toba Ligui held a congress on the Nyuchuan River, where he was enthroned as a Great Sovereign (Daiwan) under the motto of the reign of Dengo "The Rise of the state" (Kichanov, 1997, p.289). Turkic khagans were also enthroned at the congresses. At the All - Mongol congress, khuruldai Temujin was granted the title of All-Mongol Khan for the second time.

The earliest information about the order of election of the Mongol khagans is contained in the" Hidden Legend " and probably dates back to the XI century. This earliest Mongolian historical written source succinctly records the election of Khutula, the son of Khabul-khagan, as Khagan. According to the will of Ambagai-khagan, who was captured by the Jurchens and executed there, all the Taichiud Mongols gathered in the Onon tract of Khorkhonih-zhubur and installed Khutula as the khagan. After the election of the new khagan, a festival was held: "And the Mongols went to fun, with feasts and dances. Having erected the Hutula on the Khagan table, they danced around a spreading tree on Orkhon and danced so much that, as they say, "potholes formed up to the thigh, and piles of dust - up to the knee" "[Kozin, 1941, p. 85].

Apparently, the Khutula Khagan did not yet have the full power of the sovereign, but served as the military leader of the union of tribes. Rashid al-Din reports the following on this occasion:: "When the news [of the death of Khambakai-khaan] reached them, Kadan-taishi, Tudai and Yesugei-bahadur, together with the tribes and a large Mongol ulus, held a meeting to set out on a campaign to repay and avenge the death of Khambakai-khaan.

page 28

Hambakai-kaan's blood. Having elevated Kutul-kan to the dignity of khan, they subordinated all their troops to him and marched on Khatai" [Rashid-ad-din, 1950, vol. I, p. 43].

When the khan was elected to the throne, his vassals swore allegiance to him. Thus, "Yuan shi" reports that the heads of the Khatagin, Saljut, Durbet and Hungari tribes gathered in the Aru-bulak area and "slaughtered a white horse and swore to attack Genghis Khan and Wang Khan suddenly over it..." [Bichurin, 1829, p.19].

When Zhamukha was elected Gurkhan in 1201, according to the" Hidden Legend", the leaders of the Mongol tribes Khadagin, Saljiut, Dorben, Tatars, Ikeres, ungirat, Gorlos, naiman, merkit, oirat and Taijiut proclaimed him khan and took an oath of allegiance, "cutting the stallion and mare at a run" [Kozin, 1941, p. 116].

After the final break between Temujin and Zhamukha occurred, some tribal leaders who supported Zhamukha defected to Temujin, such as the Taijiut leaders Altan Otchigin, son of Khutul Khan, and Khuchar beki, son of Nekun Taiji. In the "Hidden Legend" it is said that the initiative to elect Temujin Khan came from the heads of the tribes. The oath of allegiance that Mongol tribal leaders took to their khan is described in the " Hidden Legend "in the following words:" We have decided to make you khan. When Temujin becomes our khan, this is what we will do:

On the enemies of the advanced squad rush, 
For you, always try hard...

* * *

From hunting animals in the mountains
We'll give you half of it.
Those animals that are found in the steppes,
Belly to belly we will pass.
And in the burrows that live,
Those stegno to stegno you will go.
Who is your hand at least a wave
In war, he will dare to disobey,
Don't give me any leniency
They are excommunicated from their children and wives!
Let him be like smerd, like your serf,
From you opals far waiting.

* * *

Which one of us will break your peace, 
If only peace reigned all around, 
So, those hearth is not nice: 
From their squad from the Smerdas, 
From the family mercilessly tear off, 
Send them far away to strange lands!

This is how they expressed themselves, and they took such an oath. Temujin was named Genghis Khagan and made khan over himself "(Kozin, pp. 108-109).

The custom of taking the oath among the Mongols was closely related to ritual practice. The content of the rite and the rules of its execution depended on the purpose of the ritual complexes and the ritual actions included in them.

Sometimes the Mongols, taking an oath, spilled kumiss on the ground as proof of its fortress. Such a ritual of performing the oath is mentioned by Rashid al-din:"...Toktay-beki, out of extreme fear and fear that he [Jamukha] might kill him at this convenient moment, swore by the golden cup, and spilled kumiss on the ground (emphasis added). - Auth.), as was their custom, (and said): "Exalting (to you) your

page 29

my family and (all) possessions, and from now on I will not do you any harm that deserves an apology! "" [Rashid al-Din, 1952, vol.I, pp. 199-191].

In 1206, the final ceremony was held, which finally fixed Genghis Khan on the Khan's throne. This spring (February-March) Temujin called a great kurultai at the source of the Onon River. Here they planted a white nine-legged bunchuk and named Temujin Genghis Khan. Temujin was confirmed in this title by Kokechu, the son of Munlikbeki echige from the Khankhatan tribe, who was also called Teb-tengri (Rashid al-din, 1952, vol. I, p. 150).

Saishiyal describes the ceremony of Genghis Khan's accession to the Khan's throne as follows:: "In front of the residence, a white banner "yesun khult tsagan tug" - the national flag - is flying on one side, and on the other-a black banner symbolizing the military valor of Genghis Khan... Inside the residence, on the northern side, in the middle on a high pedestal is the khan's throne covered with the skin of a white horse, on the left side just below - the chair of the khan's mother Burte-khatan, further-the chairs of the khan's mother Oeluneh, the younger khansh and the Khan's daughters, on the right side-the chairs of the khan's sons " [Sayshiyal, pp. 382-383]. After being sworn in by the highest dignitaries and military leaders, Tatatunga presented a new khan's seal made of white jasper [Nyambuu, 1993, p. 7].

The rituals of raising Genghis Khan to the throne, the rites of his burial were carried out in accordance with ancient Mongolian customs and ideas, accompanied by shamanic rituals.

Ogedei's accession to the Khan's throne was more solemn. Under his leadership, the court ceremonial1 begins to be developed for the ^first time . After the death of Genghis Khan, the throne of the great Khagans remained unoccupied for about two years. The empire was temporarily ruled by the youngest son of Genghis Khan, Tolui. In March 1229, the princes and the most important military leaders gathered at the headquarters in Mongolia, forming the great Kurultai. Before proceeding to the election of the new Khagan, the princes devoted three days to feasts, meetings and entertainment.

Rashid al-Din wrote:: "Then they talked about the affairs of the state and the reign. The princes said to Ogedei: "By virtue of the decree of Genghis Khan, with God's help, you need to give yourself up to the kingship with your soul, so that the leaders will be ready to serve you with their lives and so that far and near, Turks and Taziks (all) will obey and submit to your order." According to custom, Ogedei began to give up the throne: "Although the order of Genghis Khan is valid in this sense, but there are older brothers and uncles, especially the older brother Tului Khan is more worthy of me, (so that) to be invested with authority and take on this task; since, according to the rule and custom of the Mongols, the youngest son is the eldest in the house, replaces the father and manages his yurt and house, and Ulug-noyon is the youngest son of the great headquarters. He was with his father day and night, at the appointed unscheduled hour, and heard and learned the rules and yasa. How will I sit on the kaanship in his lifetime and in their presence?" To this the princes replied unanimously: "Genghis Khan, of all his sons and brothers, has entrusted this great work to you and assigned the right to do it to you, how can we allow his unshakable decree and urgent order to be changed and changed?" After earnest entreaties and many exhortations, Ogedei-kaan gave his consent to the election. Then everyone took off their hats and put on a new coat.-

¹ "Yuan-shi" attributes the establishment of the court ceremonial to Ogedei: "Ogedei, according to the will of Genghis Khan, ascended the imperial throne in the Kuityn-Aral tract. He was the first to establish court ceremonies, according to which the Khan's relatives and nobles performed worship..." [Bichurin, 1829, p.149]. In the Tui-chien gan mu, it is said that this was done by Elui-Chutsai: "So the ruler and the princes raised Ogedei to the throne in the east of Horini, in the Kuityn-Aral tract. At that time, all institutions were composed without further attention, and the ceremonials were brief. Elui-Chutsai was the first to compose a ceremony for the ascension to the throne, according to which the Khan's relatives, princes and generals performed worship, standing according to their families" [Rashid-ad-din, 1952, vol.I, p. 150].

page 30

they threw their belts over their shoulders... Chagatai Khan took Ogedei-kaan by the right hand, Tului-khan by the left hand, and his uncle Otchigin by the loins and placed him on the Kaan throne. Tulu Khan offered the cup, and all those present inside and around the royal tent knelt ten times and proclaimed toast to the state on his ascension to the khanate, and called him kaan. Ogedei ordered treasures to be brought from the treasury, and gave gifts to each of his kindred and strangers, tribesmen and warriors, in proportion to his generosity. And when he had finished feasting and giving gifts, he ordered, according to their custom and rule, to distribute food for the soul of Genghis Khan for the next three days. Choosing 40 beautiful girls from the families and families of the court emirs and in expensive clothes decorated with gold and precious stones, along with selected horses, they sacrificed to his spirit " [Rashid al-Din, 1960, vol. II, p. 19].

The election and enthronement of Guyuk, Ogedei-haan's eldest son, was even more lavish.

In the autumn of 1245, ² princes and noyons of the right and left wings, each with their own subordinates and adherents, gathered for the Kurultai. "Sorkuktani Begi and her sons were the first to arrive in full dress and splendor. From the east came Otchigin with eighty sons, Iljidai and other uncles and cousins: from the Chagatai headquarters-Kara (=Hulagu), Yisu (=Mengu), Buri, Baydar, Iisun-Buka and other sons and grandsons of Chagatai, from the Jochi ulus headquarters Batu sent his brothers Horde, Sheyban, Berke, Berkechar, Tangut and Tuk-Timur. Along with the princes came influential noyons and senior emirs who were related to either side. From Khitai came emirs and officials, from Turkestan and Transoxiana-Emir Mas'ud-bek and with his consent the nobles of those countries, from Khorasan - Emir Argu and with him the nobles and influential persons of that area, Iraq, Lur, Shirvan and Azerbaijan, from Rum-Sultan-Ruki-ad- din, from Gurjistan - the two Dawudas, from Haleb-the brother of the ruler there, from Mosul-the ambassador of the Sultan Badr al-din Lu'lu, from the capital of the Caliphs of Baghdad-the high Qazi Fakhr al-din and the ambassadors of the Franks, Fars and Kerman, from Ala al-din, (the ruler) of Alamut,- muhtashams of Kuhistan Shihab-ad-din and Shams-ad-din. All these persons arrived, each with as much baggage and as many gifts as became such a sovereign. About two thousand tents were prepared for them. There was no place to stay because of the many people in the vicinity of Stavka. Food and drink went up a lot (in price), and (they couldn't be found). Regarding the khan's dignity of the prince, the emirs also said: "Since Kuden, whom Genghis Khan deigned to appoint to the kaans, has died, and Shiramun, (the heir) according to the Kaan's will, has not reached adulthood, it is best to appoint Guyuk Khan, who is the eldest son of the kaan." (Guyuk Khan) became famous for his military victories and conquests, and Turakina Khatun inclined to his side, most of the emirs agreed with her. After wordy talk (all) on his elevation (to the throne), and he, as is usually the case, refused, entrusting (it) to each prince, and referring to illness and weakness of health. After convincing the emirs, he said:: "I will agree on the condition that after me (kaanism) will be approved for my family." All of them unanimously took a written oath: "Until there is nothing left of your family but a piece of meat wrapped in fat and grass, which the dog and bull will not eat, we will not give up the khan's dignity to anyone else."

Then, having performed the shamanic rite, all the princes took off their caps, untied their sashes and placed him on the royal throne."

² According to Rashid al-din, in the month of Rabi 643 AH, i.e. August 26-September 23, 1245 [Rashid al-din, vol. II, p. 118].

page 31

After that, a feast followed: "As usual, everyone began to drink cups and spent a week feasting, and when they finished (feasting), he gave a lot of good things to the khatuns, princes, emirs-temnik, thousand, centurions and foremen. And then they began to put in order the important and well-directed affairs of the state" [Rashid al-din, vol. II, pp. 118-119].

The ceremony of raising Guyuk to the throne was witnessed firsthand by Plano Carpini, who also left a description that differs in a number of interesting details unknown to the Persian historian.

When Plano Carpini arrived at the headquarters, a large tent was already pitched there, so large that it could hold more than two thousand people. The tent was surrounded by a fence. All the chiefs were gathered at the headquarters. "Each of them," writes Plano Carpini, " rode with his men around the hills and across the plain. On the first day, everyone was dressed in white purple. On the second day it was red, and then Kujuk arrived at the tent in question; on the third day they were all dressed in blue and purple, and on the fourth in the best canopies. And there were two great gates at the said wall of the will of the tent: through one only the emperor was to enter, and there was no guard, although they were open, for no one dared to enter or go out through them: through the other all who could be admitted entered. And at this gate stood guards with swords, bows and arrows. And if anyone approached the tent beyond the appointed boundaries, they were flogged if they seized him; and if he fled, they shot an arrow at him without an iron head.

And so the leaders talked inside the tent and, we believe, discussed the election. All the other people were far away from the aforementioned city. And so they stayed until almost noon, and then they began to drink the mare's milk, and until evening they drank so much that it was amazing to watch.

Starting from here, we all went to another place together, in three or four days. There, on a beautiful plain near a certain stream between the mountains, another tent was prepared, which they called the Golden Horde. There Kujuk was to sit on the throne. This tent was set up on pillars covered with cast plates and nailed to the wood with golden nails, and it was covered with a canopy above and inside the walls. And there were other fabrics on the outside. Then Kuyuk was placed on the imperial throne, and the leaders knelt before them. After that, all the people did the same, with the exception of us, who were not subject to them. Then they began to drink and, as is their custom, they drank continuously until evening.

After leaving there, we arrived at another place where a wonderful tent was pitched. All of the flaming red purple that the Kitai had given him. There we were also led inside. And always, when we entered, we were given beer or wine to drink, and we were also offered boiled meat if we wanted it. A high platform of planks was also erected, where the emperor's throne was placed. The throne was of ivory, beautifully carved; there was also gold, precious stones, if we remember well, and pearls; and the throne, which was round at the back, was ascended by steps. There were also benches set up around this seat, where the ladies sat on benches on the left side, but no one sat higher on the right, and the chiefs sat on benches lower down, and in the middle, while others sat behind them. And every day the ladies gathered in great numbers. The three tents mentioned above were very large; the other tents, made of white felt, were quite large and beautiful, and were owned by his wives. There they split up. And the emperor's mother went in one direction, and the emperor in the other, for the trial " [Carpini, 1911, pp. 52-56].

The ceremony of electing and elevating the successor of Guyuk - Munke-hagan to the kingdom is described by Rashid al-din, who wrote that not all the princes came to the Kurultai-

page 32

Chee, some of them didn't show up. Supporters of Mongke began to think about how to make "everyone sit in rank". "Borj decided that Bucek should sit in his place due to a leg condition, and Kubilai should also sit. And everyone listened to Kubilai's words. Then he ordered Munka to stand at the door so that he could stop the princes and emirs, and Hulagu ordered him to stand in front of the stewards and bodyguards, so that no one would speak or listen to inappropriate speech. Accordingly, order was established, and (only) the two of them walked back and forth until the Kurultai was over. And the stargazers chose a lucky star. One of the proofs of his (Mongke. - Auth. The reason for the daily increase in happiness was as follows: during those few years, the sky in those places was covered with a cover of clouds, there were continuous rains, and no one saw the face of the sun. By chance, at the very hour that the astrologers chose and (at which) they wanted to make astronomical observations , the sun, which illuminates the world, suddenly appeared from behind the clouds, and the sky opened in a space equal to the body of the sun. So stargazers easily determined the height of the planet above the horizon. All those present-the mentioned princes, senior honorable emirs, heads of families and countless troops who were located within those borders - all took off their hats and hung belts (to themselves) on their shoulders" [Rashid al-Din, 1960, vol.II, p. 132].

In January-February 1251, Munke Khan was placed on the "throne of supreme power and the throne of kingship" in Karakorum: "The emirs and troops who were standing outside the headquarters also knelt nine times along with the princes. When he was happily seated on the throne of the state, out of the fullness of his lofty thoughts, he wanted all men and creatures to rest on the same day. He issued a decree that on this happy day, no assembly should in any way enter into the path of dispute and quarrel, but (all) should engage in entertainment and pleasure. And just as people of different ranks justly demand pleasure and pleasure from fate, so that all kinds of creatures and minerals are not deprived of it. Domestic animals - mounted and pack animals-should not be allowed to be exhausted by horse riding, cargo, fetters and hunting; not to shed the blood of those (animals) who, according to the just Sharia, can be eaten, game-feathered and four-legged, waterfowl and steppe-so that they are safe from the arrows and snares of hunters and fly freely. grazed; do not disturb the ground surface with the impact of stakes and horseshoes. Do not defile running water with dirt and sewage" [Rashid al-din, vol.II, p. 132].

Rashid al-Din goes on to say: "In this way (the whole of) that day they spent until nightfall, and the next day they held a feast in the tent that Sahib Yavalich had prepared with gold-woven fabrics and colored brocades. No one had ever erected such a tent or built such a court, and in the form just described, the sovereign of the world sat on a throne, on the right hand the princes, standing in a crowd like the constellation of the Pleiades, and his seven high - ranking brothers, standing decorously before him, on the left hand sat the princes of the world. wives like the maidens of paradise, and silver-footed kravchie (brought) zhbans with kumiss and wine and brought (all) with cups and charms; (further) noyons and emirs, and in front of them Munkasar-noyon stood submissively between the bodyguards, (further) - bitikchin, viziers, hajivs and naibs, and in front of them-Bulga-aka, (all) according to their degrees and positions stood in a row. The rest of the emirs and attendants were standing outside the reception tent in a dignified manner, each in his own place.

So, for a whole week there was a feast and fun. Two thousand carts of wine and kumiss, three hundred heads of horses and oxen, and three thousand rams were assigned to the duties of the drinking treasury and blacksmith shop every day " [Rashid al-Din, vol. II, p. 133].

Kublai's accession to the throne was not as grand and lavish as that of his elder brother, Mongke-hagan: "Most of the princes gathered in the city of Kai Pingfu and in the middle of the summer of 1260 put Kublai Khan on the throne. According to custom, all the princes and noyons (emirs) gave written obligations, pre-emptively giving their names.-

page 33

they bowed their knees and proclaimed Kublai Khan. After that, they made a feast" [Rashid al-din, vol. II, p. 160].

The same rite was observed when the rulers of large uluses, such as the ilkhans of Iran, were elevated to the throne.

After Hulagu's death, his eldest son Abaga Khan succeeded to the throne of the Ilkhans: "After performing the mourning ceremony, all the wives, princes and sons-in-law gathered and held a meeting regarding his accession to the throne. In that era, there were many long-standing senior emirs: Elke-noyon, Sunjak-noyon, Sontay-noyon, Samgar-noyon, Shiktur-noyon, Argun-aga and others, the enumeration of which was delayed. Of these, Shiktur-noyon, to whom Hulagu Khan gave his last will and entrusted biliki and Sunjak-agha, before the other emirs, testified to Abag Khan's rights to inherit the throne and replace him, but he refused and entrusted the brothers to others. With one accord, the brothers bowed the knee, saying that we are slaves, and that you are our father's deputy. Abaga Khan said: "Kubilai-kaan is the elder brother, how can one sit (on the throne) without his permission?" The princes and emirs said: "In the presence of you, who are the elder brother of all the princes and know the ancient customs, rules, laws and good traditions and good traditions, and (whom) Hulagu Khan made heir to the throne during his lifetime, how can another sit?" And all agreed without hypocrisy. On Friday, the 5th day of Shun (?) - the month of the year Huker, which was the year of the bull, corresponding to the 3rd Ramadan of the summer 663 (19.06.1265), at the choice of Haji Nasir ad-din Tusi,..., under the sign of the constellation Virgo, Abag Khan was placed on the royal throne at Chagan-naur in the Perakhan region and performed all the rites that are established in this regard."

After that, Abaga Khan distributed gifts to everyone present and made a feast. Rashid al-Din describes it this way: "Abaga Khan, after ascending to the khan's throne, gave his wives, princes and emirs immeasurable riches in money, jewelry and expensive clothes, so that all the soldiers benefited from this. After observing the customs, feasting and congratulations on his accession to the throne, he turned to the management and arrangement of important affairs and the needs of the ulus and the army " [Rashid-ad-din, vol. II, p. 67].

The enthronement of Ilkhan Ahmed, the seventh son of Hulagu, is described very briefly by Rashid al-din: "On Sunday, the 13th of the month of Rabi-al-Awal, summer 681 (June 21, 1281 - Auth.), they duly gave a written commitment. Konkurtai took Ahmed by the right hand, and Shiktur-noyon by the left, and they placed him on the throne, and, according to the custom of the Mongols, they performed the rites of congratulation and rejoicing. Since he professed Islam, he was named Sultan Ahmed" [Rashid-ad-din, vol. II, p. 100]. After that, Ahmed ordered treasures to be brought from the khan's treasury and distributed gifts to everyone around him, "and he gave everyone in the whole squad a hundred and twenty dinars."

Ahmed was dethroned by his nephew Arghun. In August 1284, Argun was proclaimed Ilkhan and placed on the throne on the day that was indicated by astrologers under the happy sign of the constellation Sagittarius: "Hulaju took Argun Khan under the right hand, and Anbarchi under the left and put him on the royal throne. All agreed to throw themselves around the ambassador's neck and, as is established, knelt down and gave themselves up to treats, feasts and amusements " [Rashid al-Din, vol. II, p. 113].

Little is known about court etiquette and customs in the aristocratic Mongol circles prior to the formation of Genghis Khan's empire. The information we have is very fragmentary.

At the court of the Mongol khagans under Genghis, the old simplicity of morals still prevailed.

page 34

Under subsequent khans, with the increased influence of civilized states, court life (and not only court life) becomes more complicated. Under the influence primarily of neighboring China, at the suggestion of Genghis Khan's closest adviser and his successor Ogedei, the noble Khitan Yelyu Chutsai, one of the most enlightened people of his time, a new ceremonial is being established at the court of the Mongol khagans, in which a lot of purely Mongolian, ancient shamanic elements are preserved. In the "Gan-mu" it is written: "And so the ruler (Tolui) and the princes raised Ogedei to the throne in the east of Horini, in the Kuityn-Aral tract. At the same time, all institutions were composed without further attention and the ceremonials were brief. Elui-Chutsai was the first to compose a ceremony for the ascension to the throne, according to which the Khan's relatives, princes and generals performed worship, standing in their ranks" (Bichurin, 1829, p.150).

By the time of Emperor Kublai's reign, court etiquette had already been developed in some detail. This was facilitated by the strengthening of the feudal system in Mongolian society and the establishment of feudal orders. The ceremonial established at the Khan's court in Karakorum, and then, with the move of the khagan to China, in Khanbalik (Beijing), began to be followed by smaller feudal lords.

Both a simple arat and a noble nobleman, going to the khan's headquarters or palace, were obliged to strictly observe the established rules. "At the first approach to the place where the great khan is located," Marco Polo notes, "people from the people at a distance of half a mile, out of respect for his high rank, stop with a modest, quiet and calm look: no noise, no sound and no loud talk is heard" [Book..., 1955, p. 126].

A wooden fence was placed around the tent of the khan or other major feudal lord. Just such a fence was placed around the tent of Hagan Guyuk. According to Plano Carpini, this wooden fence (tabulatum) was painted with various images (Carpini, 1911, p. 52).

Everyone who was invited to the court of the khan or a major feudal lord (the ruler of the ulus) had to pass between two fires. Plano Carpini and his companions were also forced to perform this procedure before being allowed to have an audience with Batu. At the same time, they were told: "Go quietly, because we have forced you to come between two fires, not for any other reason, but only so that if you intend any evil against our lord or if you accidentally bring poison, the fire will take away all evil" [Carpini, 1911, p. 43].

Before entering the tent, the invitees had to bend the left knee three times. When entering the tent, one had to be careful not to accidentally step on the threshold or on the tent ropes that served as the threshold. Violation of this custom was punishable by death. Then, when they entered the tent, they would kneel again on their left knee and tell them the purpose of their visit. If they were ambassadors, then at that moment they were supposed to present their diplomas.

No one was allowed to approach the tent in which the great khan or other major ruler lived, except for members of his family and invited guests.

Travelers noted that Batu, the ruler of the Golden Horde, lived "with complete splendor, having gatekeepers and all officials, just like the emperor" (Carpini, 1911, p.49). He sits on a high place, as if on a throne, with one of his wives. The brothers and sons are sitting on the bench below. Other people sit below them on the ground. Men sit to the right, women to the left.

In the middle, near the entrance to the tent, there is usually a table with drinking in gold and silver vessels.

When visiting Guyuk's headquarters, Plano Carpini and his companions had to bend the left knee four times. They were then searched very carefully to see if anyone had knives with them. After that, they entered the door on the east side, " so

page 35

how no one dares to enter from the West except the Emperor alone "(Carpini, 1911, pp. 55-56). Plano Carpini goes on to add: "So does every chief in his tent, but the lesser ones do not care much about it."

Later, during the Kublai period, apparently under Chinese and Central Asian influence, it was customary at court to wear white boots before entering the hall of the imperial palace. Marco Polo wrote: "They also have beautiful boots made of white leather, which they take with them; when they come to the courtyard, from there to the hall, when they are called by the sovereign, they put on these white shoes, and pass the others to the servants, so as not to stain the magnificent, elaborately made silk multicolored carpets sewn with gold "[Book..., 1955, pp. 126-127]. Here we are talking about the Mongolian steppe aristocracy, whose representatives Marco Polo calls barons and nobles. Along the way, he makes another very interesting report about the life of the Mongols of the XIII century: "Every baron or nobleman carries with him a small and beautiful vessel, into which he spits while he is in the hall, since no one in the hall dares to spit on the floor; after spitting, he covers the vessel and puts it aside" [Kniga..., 1955, p. 126].

When someone close to the Hagan reports to him or listens to his answer, he stands before him kneeling to the end of the speech, no matter how big it may be (Carpini, 1911, p. 59).

During the receptions, those present were treated to kumiss, milk vodka or milk, as well as boiled meat.

The nine-pound white banner served as a symbol of the people and personally of Genghis Khan. The banner was raised at the beginning of any major campaign or significant event, such as the proclamation of a new ruler. White is a good color for the Mongols, and the number nine is sacred. So, after the election of the new khan, his courtiers knelt before him nine times. The military flag was sometimes consecrated, i.e. sprinkled with milk (sa uli-bar), which is repeatedly mentioned in the "Hidden Legend". The words tu (banner) and sulde ( totem, symbol, soul) were synonymous.

State ceremonial and court etiquette were formed on the basis of traditional Mongolian folk rituals and rituals. Under Genghis Khan, the most simple relations were preserved in the court environment, and Genghis Khan himself opposed the complication of etiquette and ceremonials.

Under the successors of Genghis Khan, the state ceremonial becomes more complicated. The etiquette and ritual stereotypes that corresponded to the ancient Mongol military ideology and psychology are being replaced by norms and ceremonial that met the needs of a more developed society.

list of literature

Bichurin N. Ya. History of the first four Khans from the House of Genghisov, translated from Chinese by the monk Joakinf. SPb., 1829.

Carpini Plano. History of the Mongols, St. Petersburg, 1914.

The Book of Marco Polo, Moscow, 1955.

Kozin S. A. The hidden legend. Mongol Chronicle of 1240 under the title Yuan chao bi shi. Vol. 1: Introduction to the study of the monument, translation, texts, glossaries. Moscow-L., 1941.

Kychanov E. I. Nomadic states from Huns to Manchus. Moscow, 1997.

Nyambuu X. Олноо оргогдсон Богд хаант Монгол улсын торийн еслол (State ceremonial in Mongolia). Улаанбаатар, 1993.

Rashid al-din. Collection of chronicles. Vol. I. M.-L., 1952; Vol. II. 1960.

Sayshiyal. Chinggis khaany tovchoon (A Brief History of Chinggis Khan), T. I. Khuhe-Khoto, 1989.

Permanent link to this publication: