Introduction

Building links between policy makers and sociologists in the Asia-Pacific region has received increasing attention recently, with calls for Governments to adopt strategies such as the World Bank's Comprehensive Development Frameworks (CDFs) and the Poverty Reduction Strategy Papers (PRSPS) (Wolfensohn, 1999).. These strategies, along with UN development organizations, call for closer collaboration between Governments, civil society, the private sector, and foreign organizations to develop concepts that will equip policymakers with a broader arsenal of policy solutions and methods. Independent research and international knowledge sharing are an important aspect of this process. As the demand for politically independent applied scientific research has increased in the Asia-Pacific region, it has become clear that the results of such research should be made available to policy makers and their advisers. The interaction between research and policy will not only provide policy makers with a solid knowledge base, but also help them avoid some mistakes when making decisions.

Globalization has also had an impact on the power structures of the Asia-Pacific region. Local, national and regional policymakers are under increasing pressure to develop and implement effective measures to address the challenges of sustainable and equitable development. National Governments are increasingly aware of the relationship between social and economic processes. This became apparent after the 1997-1998 Asian financial crisis, when Governments were forced to re-evaluate their relations with civil society and the private sector, as well as with regional and international organizations and economic bodies. To the authorities when-

Robin Iridal-Associate Professor at the School of Earth and Environmental Studies at the University of Wollongong and Head of the Asia-Pacific Migration Research Service Secretariat. He has researched migration of skilled and less-skilled workers to the Asia-Pacific region, the role of women in migration, respect for human rights, and procedures for recognizing migrants ' skill levels. E-mail: riredale@uow.edu.au

Tim Turpin is Associate Director of the Australian Industrial Policy Research Group at the University of Western Sydney. He is a sociologist with research experience in migration, science, technology and industry. His work is closely related to current political issues, and he has extensive experience in developing research networks. E-mail: t.turpin@uws.cdu.au

Charles Hawksley is a lecturer in Political science and International Relations at the School of History and Political Science at the University of Wollongong. His research interests include international relations theory, imperialism, colonialism, labor, migration, and economic development in the Asia-Pacific region. E-mail: charlesh@uow.edu.au

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It was necessary to change the socio-economic policy, as the crisis provoked public discontent and social difficulties, highlighted the causal relationship between social policy and economic issues.

In this context, various international networks have been established to conduct and coordinate independent research on global issues, but with a country-specific focus. Recent examples include the Asia Pacific Migration Research Network (APMRN), the Science and Technology Policy Asian Network (STEP AN), and the Science and Technology Management Arab Region Network (STEMARN). All of these organizations receive some assistance through UNESCO channels and are linked cells that work closely with national Governments and international organizations. Other similar services include the Coastal Resources Research Network, the Global Urban Research Initiative, the Learning for Environmental Action Program, and the Canadian Aging Research Network.), the London Exploration Service (the Metropolis Network)1. While it is clear that these services play an important role in coordinating and expanding research and training, their role as providers of information for policy-making in individual countries is less clear.

APMRN was established in 1995 as a project within the framework of the UNESCO Management of Social Transformation (MOST) program, which aims to assist in migration research and development of migration policies. It began as a regional project based on the collaboration of migration and interethnic relations researchers in East Asian countries (China, Japan, South Korea, Hong Kong); Southeast Asian countries (Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore, Vietnam, Philippines, Thailand) and Pacific Rim countries (Australia, New Zealand, and the Pacific Islands)2. In 2001, APMRN expanded its activities to South Asia (Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, India) and now brings together scientists from seventeen divisions or national economies. Representatives of international organizations, national governments and non-governmental organizations participate in meetings of local APMRN branches and in international events. The posts of Chairman and Vice-Chairman are subject to rotation 3. The APMRN secretariat is located at the University of Wollongong, Australia.

The two main goals are: to promote greater understanding of the long-term effects of migration and ethnic and cultural diversity as factors of social transformation, and to participate in the development of effective policies aimed at combating poverty caused by migration. One of APMRN's strengths is that it is independent of government in its research. However, partnership with the policy-making structures of governments and other bodies is necessary to ensure that scientists ' research offers realistic solutions and recommendations that would fit into the political mechanisms and structures of the countries of the region.

The political decision-making process is not always adequately informed. Policy makers need to respond quickly to problems that arise, so they usually do not have enough time to collect the necessary information and data. Government agencies seek to overcome these challenges by creating databases, expanding the network of informants, and promoting research to areas that they believe will provide the most valuable information for policy makers and analysts.

Understanding what you need to know is an important and obvious condition for conducting your research.-

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effective policy development. As for what you need to know, the situation is not always straightforward. Everything is more or less clear when it comes to current issues, such as implementing policy initiatives and responding to new issues when they arise. Long - term planning is much more difficult-developing policies and proactively addressing problems before they reach a crisis point.

The aim of the project discussed in this article is to study the extent and nature of the impact of migration research on migration policy. Special attention is paid to three of APMRN's 17 divisions in the Asia-Pacific region. The study focuses on three countries where migration has historically developed differently: Australia, a classic country of immigrants and settlers; the Philippines, a country where many migrants leave for work, and Thailand, a country where many migrants leave and arrive. The actual data are obtained from surveys conducted in 2001 on the basis of a questionnaire among policy makers, consumers of scientific data from non-governmental and other organizations, as well as scientists.

The article examines the attitudes and receptivity of the three Governments to research on migration processes, mainly those carried out by scientists. Non-governmental organizations were also consulted on their research activities, ways to influence policy makers, and their understanding of the political decision-making process. We were particularly interested in the following points:

- receptivity of governments to research on migration issues;

- APMRN operations in Australia, the Philippines and Thailand;

- possible role of APMRN as an organization that provides advice and recommendations to those who develop migration policy;

- potential increase in the impact of APMRN on government planning and policy.

Review

Research can have a direct or indirect impact on policy development. In the first case, a government agency may request the preparation of a report and then approve and implement some or all of its recommendations. In the second case, the migration study can also have an impact on government migration policy, influencing public discussion through the media or ensuring that the results of the study are accepted by the state body. In the latter situation, the bureaucratic machine slowly assimilates these results, and eventually they become politics. It is also possible for migration studies to provide non-governmental organizations with new evidence-based arguments on which they can demand policy changes. Another way is to inform the political opposition, which can put pressure on the authorities to implement changes or subsequently form a government and implement recommendations.

A study of the impact of migration research on migration policy in three countries shows that the easiest way is to show the direct impact of research on policy, when a specific study is commissioned and then its results are implemented. Indirect influence happens more often, but it is much more difficult to determine. It is problematic to show indirect relationships, since political cuisine is both political and bureaucratic processes. As part of our analysis, it should be noted that it is research structures that play an important role in identifying these hidden processes.

The results of studies in three countries are summarized below. Next, we examine the nature of the links between researchers and policy makers and the implications of these findings for migration studies, primarily those conducted by APMRN.

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Australia

Overview of current migration trends Australia is predominantly an "immigrant nation", with migration still accounting for about half of the annual population growth. Immigrants come to Australia for permanent residence under the "Migration Program" (approximately 110,000) and the "Humanitarian Program" (approximately 12,000). The number of temporary migrants has increased by 73% since 1992 and reached 8164549 in 2000. Most of these people come on short-term visas and return home, but some remain permanently. People are also emigrating from Australia, and as a result, its population is growing by 40,000 people a year.

The main trends in recent years are as follows:

- preference is given to qualified migrants who take on all the costs associated with moving (travel, visa, qualification assessment, medical expenses and living without benefits during forced unemployment);

- a significant reduction in support programs for immigrants, which creates difficulties for new arrivals (lack of English language training programs, employment programs, etc.) and shifts a significant part of the burden of assistance to new arrivals to ethnic communities, especially their female part;

- falling share of family migration;

- the main principles of the refugee policy have become the admission of only persons who fall under the UN definition of refugees, and various measures to prevent the arrival of people seeking asylum;

- a number of extreme measures - turning away boats with people seeking asylum and financing the establishment of detention centers for migrants in the Pacific Basin in 2001 for the period of processing their applications for refugee status;

- the number of international students arriving in Australia is growing rapidly, from 65,000 in 1991-1992 to 127479 in 2002-2003;

- the number of temporary migrants increased by 73% from 1992 to 2000, and many of those who entered on a temporary visa receive permanent resident status.

Brief outline of migration research

A small number of organizations are engaged in research on migration and its impact on society, and they also finance these studies. Following the liquidation of the Bureau of Immigration, Multicultural and Population Research (BIMPR) in 1996. There is little private research done in Australia due to the lack of private foundations, such as those in the United States and Japan.

High-quality statistics can be easily obtained for most migration issues. Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS) It conducts censuses, labor market surveys, and other surveys every five years. Individuals are classified by place of birth, which makes it possible to analyze the situation of migrants in the first, and not in the second generation. The former BIMPR provided excellent data, and DIMIA continues to do so for some positions. An overview of immigrants arriving in Australia can be purchased from DIMIA. Previously, the study of migration was carried out by state ministries, but now the main organization that conducts research or contracts for its implementation is the Ministry of Immigration, Interethnic Relations and Indigenous Affairs (DIMIA).

Universities have recently significantly reduced research in this area. University researchers and students continue their research on immigration and interethnic relations on an individual basis. The main source of funding for such research -

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The Australian Research Council (ARC), which provides grants on a competitive basis. Private consultants no longer play a significant role in research, as public funding has declined sharply in recent years.

Representativeness of this study

A total of 33 interviews were conducted with key informants: 12 politicians working in federal and state government agencies, representatives of non-governmental organizations, and 10 research scientists. Interviews were not recorded on tape, however, interviewers recorded the essence of what was said during phone conversations or reconstructed the content of face-to-face conversations after they ended from recordings.

Sometimes the person refused an interview, did not respond to a call request, or did not respond to emails. In such cases, a suitable replacement was found, but then key respondents from the Federation of Ethnic Communities Councils of Australia (FECCA) or the International Organization for Migration (IOM) were unavailable, and the decision was made to send them a completed report for comments.

Possible disadvantages of the study are related to the fact that people can only answer the questions that they are asked. Among the government officials, there were especially many who did not want their words recorded, DIMIA answered the questions in writing. Scientists were usually less concerned about the consequences of their comments about government actions, but some non-governmental organizations were cautious because they received financial support from the government.

Political context

The State in Australia has an important role to play in setting migration (and migrant accommodation) policies. Some analysts believe that in the last decade, DIMIA has sought to avoid political and legal interference in migration processes and regulate the ethnic composition of the population by creating a "rule-based decision-making regime" (Bruer and Power, 1993, p. 122). It is assumed that public support for the program depends on the widespread perception that the program is well managed or "holistic". In the context of policies aimed at reducing immigration, especially from Asia, the Government is "willing to ignore the interest groups that were favored in the 1980s, since it is much more important to calm the widespread public concerns" (Freeman and Birrel, 2001, p. 546). In the United States, laws regulating migration, especially those of a restrictive nature, are adopted after careful study and there is a sharp struggle around them. In Australia, the situation is different, only Democrats and greens are opposed to tougher requirements for expats. If there is a powerful movement in the United States and Canada to protect the rights of immigrants, then in Australia, as soon as such a movement raised its head, it was legally deprived of any significant role. As Freeman and Birrell (2001, p. 548) point out, Australian public opinion is easily manipulated and changeable, and can be turned into an effective tool for exerting pressure on the authorities.

Every year DIMIA consults quite a lot with fellow citizens. State agencies dealing with migration issues and migrant support centers formulate questions for discussion, and organizational structures of local communities, such as councils of ethnic communities, collect the necessary information through their field offices. However, they most often refer to research conducted on behalf of DIMIA and the statistical data obtained during them. Understanding the political context and the role of the electorate in modern conditions is necessary for the interpretation of research approaches

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migrations and responses to these studies in three groups.

Approaches to migration research

There are three levels of approach to migration among policy makers. The first level is those who are directly involved in the development of migration policy: the Ministry of Immigration, Interethnic Relations and Indigenous People (DIMIA), which is responsible for the "national approach" to migration. DIMIA employees are responsible for developing and implementing the national migration policy. The second level is employees of federal agencies that are involved in public policy, but they also have to provide specific assistance to immigrants and develop and implement specific policies of their departments within the framework of common approaches. These federal institutions include, in particular, the Department of Education, Science and Technology (DEST) and the Department of Family and Community Services (FACS). The third level is state institutions responsible for interethnic relations. They are also consulted when developing a State approach to immigration policy, but their main task is to strictly implement State programs in accordance with the national migration policy.

The leading organization dealing with migration issues is DIMIA, but other federal agencies also make a significant contribution to their solution. At first glance, DIMIA's approach to research seems quite broad. It has a division that collects and analyzes data, and receives information from the departments involved in program implementation "on issues that need to be studied". Departments receive information from their foreign representative offices. Interagency surveys are organized by agencies such as the Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABC), BEST, FACS, and the Department of Employment and Workplace Relations (DEWR).

DIMIA also commissions research from freelance consultants, including people with advanced degrees. They study current issues of specific projects and conduct detailed long-term research. However, before making such an order, DIMIA determines the research problems, the specific issues that need to be studied, and to a large extent the methodology. Other federal agencies receive research results that are useful for developing a "government-wide approach," but they tend to fit into those agencies ' forward-looking research plans. It is interesting to note that research conducted by "other institutions" is largely based on information and research results obtained by the parent organization, DIMIA.

At the international level, DIMIA conducts research through selected international organizations that perform similar functions and connect organizations such as the International Organization for Migration, the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) and UNESCO. DIMIA also uses its staff working in Australian embassies abroad and an array of foreign research literature.

Currently, there is very little research done by non-governmental organizations in Australia. Some manage to collect basic statistics, track the press, conduct small surveys, and collect fun information on issues that interest them. One organization said it "collects only' factual ' statistics, since no government will fund an organization that criticizes it." DIMA-funded organizations are not keen on criticizing the government for fear of retaliation.-

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political or financial measures, however, have not yet occurred.

Non-governmental organizations mostly rely on information provided by the Federation of Ethnic Community Councils (FECCA), academics, and professional researchers. FECCA itself conducts little research and emphasizes that independent research is rarely conducted at present. One group said that migration issues are poorly studied in universities, because universities are becoming "more corporate" and there is almost no" clean " research. Other groups rely on organizations such as the Refugee Council of Australia (RCA), the National Council of Churches and the Catholic Bishops ' Conference, as well as university students who conduct research on a voluntary or part - time basis. Few people have the ability or desire to throw in information that might lead to a government investigation or a reason for the government to invite consultants on a particular issue.

The only exception is the RCA, which can fund the work of two people to research topics identified in collaboration with DIMIA. These organizations will not conduct research that does not meet their interests. Among the research topics are monitoring the annual influx of immigrants, the work of services dealing with their resettlement, ways to protect minor migrants who are not accompanied by adults, preserving families, and opinions on who should not fall under the provisions of the Convention on the humane treatment of refugees. RCA reports are not written in an academic manner and are intended not only for politicians, but also for the general public. They are made in the same vein as the research conducted for the European Council on Refugees and Exiles (European Council on Refugees and Exiles).

Non-governmental organizations understand the importance of research, but are unable to conduct it themselves due to lack of funds and political vulnerability. They sometimes turn to scientists with whom they can collaborate, but such collaboration is hindered by a lack of funds. Priority research topics identified by non-governmental organizations are: the United Nations Convention on the Treatment of Refugees of the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees and its possible application in a specific situation; political asylum seekers and procedures for determining the legality of their asylum requests; alternative methods of holding refugees while their cases are being considered; the impact of "illegal migration"."migration issues; the balance of the Australian immigration program; problems of medical care for migrants and their families; illegal export of people; Australia's international obligations in the field of migration. This list opens up a wide scope for studying urgent issues and shows how much dissatisfaction with the subject of research that is conducted on behalf of the government is great.

Surveys of scientists on the mechanism of political decision-making on migration issues show that their opinions differ significantly. More than half of the respondents believe that government policy is shaped by a small number of influential cabinet members who bring up issues that usually hinder the development of cultural diversity and the growth of immigration. Others argue that the situation is more complex.

All the scientists who studied migration noted that the Government is primarily interested in the economic aspect of migration and its impact on the labor market. It is the latter that is the main factor determining government policy: politicians consider the influx of skilled labor to be a positive aspect of migration. The majority of respondents were critical about the preference for qualified specialists, such a policy, in their opinion, brings short-term benefits (for example, maintaining the quality of work).

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immigration flows are stable), but it does not take into account the long-term consequences of migration. According to respondents, the most interesting topics for research are the following (given in no particular order):: migration of skilled professionals; international migration trends (comprehensive surveys); the impact of migration on the economy and labor market; migration and urbanization; social and cultural implications of immigration policies; the role of cultural differences in adaptation; assistance in settling in and mastering the language, including equal access to education and social services, and opportunities for education in native-language schools, problems faced by young immigrants, emigration; population and sustainable development.

Politicians are also concerned about the political consequences of migration. Their main concern is populist calls not to grant immigrants voting rights, which increases the number of supporters of centrist and right-wing political forces. This is accompanied by a clear rejection of the ideal of cultural diversity that has been promoted in recent years by all Australian Governments, regardless of their party affiliation, as an agreement has been reached between the two parties. A minority of scientists who have studied migration have expressed the opinion that, in order to retain power, politicians appeal to existing prejudices against immigrants in society, and demand, for example, to tighten border security in Australia.

Four scientists consider pressure groups as an important factor in shaping migration policy. Among them are groups representing the interests of entrepreneurs (some of them advocate policies aimed at increasing immigration), representatives of ethnic communities, refugees and asylum seekers, and members of the public. As part of this process, the public forums described above are organized by DIMA and attended by the Minister. Policy formation is seen as a complex process of interaction between groups, interests, lobbyists, and bureaucrats.

None of the scientists called the research an important factor determining migration policy. Seven respondents said that government policies do not take into account the results of independent research. Only two researchers expressed the opinion that independent research has an impact on government policy, but even if this happens, it happens very slowly, it takes months or even years for ideas or discoveries to be communicated to the government and taken into account by it. Another scientist noted that research provides material for political discussions and sets the parameters for these discussions, but current problems remain the most significant factor for developing a political course.

All respondents agreed that since the Government's decision to abolish the Bureau of Immigration, Interethnic Relations and Population Research (BIMR) in 1996, the number of studies has decreased. Support for migration research has been reduced due to the fact that BIMR is no longer available, and funding for DMIA research has been cut. Funding for basic migration research has stopped. Research is mainly limited to the collection of statistical data or applied research to solve a specific problem or answer a specific question. Everyone agreed that there is less research done by consultants now, and they are mainly studying economic rather than social issues. It seems that the government's interest is limited to exploring the following areas:: resettlement (research is conducted by LSIA); provision of housing, although research on this topic is funded not only by the government; economic effect (research is conducted by consulting economists and large consulting companies).

All those who seek to influence politics face a common problem: how to

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ensure that their voices are heard and their research is read. However, six scientists said they were not trying to influence policy. To make a policy decision, the Australian Government occasionally organizes research and collects proposals for solving a particular problem. Half of the respondents regularly submitted their proposals to government committees. One respondent is very active in issuing informational press releases about how to build relationships with print media. Press releases consist of news articles, and this helps to start a public discussion. Another scientist uses contacts with politicians and all parties (government and opposition) interested in migration issues to publish articles in the press with the results of his research.

All ten people interviewed complained that it is more difficult to get public funding for research now than it was five or ten years ago. The main source of funding for scientists ' research is the academic institutions where they work, but some seek financial assistance from advisory bodies, receive funds from them to study non-migration issues, and use them for immigration research. In the conditions of "drying up of sources of funding" for research, many scientists conduct them on their own or attract graduate students or colleagues to collect materials. Migration researchers in Australia do not receive significant support in their research departments and usually work on projects alone. The institutes where they work pay them a salary, give them the freedom to work on the issues they are interested in, but they do not help much in conducting field research or analyzing the data obtained. They prefer to publish their research in international or domestic journals, write monographs or chapters in collective works. Publications in the form of government reports or expert assessments are rare.

Very few scientists can claim that their research has actually influenced government policy. If this was the case, it was before 1996. None of the respondents could indicate an area where their research recommendations were fully implemented as a policy. One researcher suggested that in order for scientists ' research to have an impact on government policy, they should have a discussion about the issue that would draw public attention to it. If something is discussed in society, the government cannot help but react to it. This is consistent with the view of Freeman and Birrell (2001) that the current realities of Australian political life are such that the most powerful argument for politicians is electoral advantage, rather than scientific validity.

A project on "serial sponsorship" initiated by the Ministry of Immigration in 1992, where the same person brings wives from abroad several times and takes them in for maintenance, led to a significant change in policy (Iredale, Innes, Castles, 1992). The project's research began after public and media attention was drawn to the disappearance of foreign wives and frequent cases of domestic violence against them. At one time, government officials were very skeptical about the possibility of change, but in the end, all the recommendations were implemented. Some recommendations on human rights violations were implemented quickly, while others (especially those that limited the number of marriages to women from abroad when they were supported by their spouse) were implemented after 1996 as part of measures to limit migration through marriage.

Resume

Migration and research on migration issues in Australia has a long history. Until the late 1960s and early 70s, when the "White Australia" policy was implemented, research was conducted

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migration policy was rarely strictly controlled by the state. In the 1970s, the admission of immigrants on the basis of race was abandoned, a consensus was reached between the two main parties on this issue, and the policy of" assimilation " gave way to recognition of the need to preserve cultural diversity. The main subject of research was immigrants who arrived for permanent residence, and recently temporary migrants and emigration have become an important area of research. Research peaked in the 1990s.

Compared to the 1980s and early 1990s, the situation for migration researchers has changed. Now there is no favorable atmosphere for conducting independent research. Scientists can carry out small projects, spending on them their own funds or the funds of the universities where they work. Non-governmental organizations are assigned a purely utilitarian role among institutions dealing with the settlement of immigrants, but they cannot conduct research on the" political aspects " of immigration, this is considered the fiefdom of DIMIA. Researchers working for the state take for granted the reduction of state funding for DIMA research programs and the tightening of control over the implementation of these programs. Public funds are allocated to research on the impact of migration on Australian society and to a select group of researchers.

Philippines

Overview of current migration trends

For a quarter of a century, the Philippines has been a supplier of labor, and Filipinos have emigrated primarily because of the poor economic and political situation in the country. The Philippines is now the largest exporter of human capital in Asia. Labor migration has a major impact on

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national identity, and the country is faced not only with its consequences for the population, but also with the serious political and social problems generated by it.

Today, Filipinos travel to more than 100 countries around the world. Empirical data revealed the following patterns in migration abroad in the mid-1980s and 1990s: the predominance of temporary migrants over those who leave permanently; the growing importance of Asia as a place of work and the decline of migrant workers to the Middle East; the growing proportion of women among migrants; and the continued importance of the Philippines as a place of employment. economics of migrant remittances from abroad.

Brief outline of migration research

Since 1975, a significant number of studies have been conducted on migration from the Philippines to foreign countries. A large body of knowledge has been accumulated, which is collected in two annotated bibliographies of documentary materials from 745 studies conducted between 1975 and 1997.

An analysis of the research literature published in the Philippines between 1975 and 1998 shows that various aspects of migration were studied by researchers who worked in non-governmental universities and research institutes. The subject of research is very broad, the interpretation of data differs in methodological diversity, which expands our understanding of the subject of research.

Interest in migration research has developed in the Philippines under the influence of several factors. In a review of migration studies in the Philippines from 1975 to 1995, Yukawa (1996) briefly outlines four key factors::

1. the desire to describe or analyze the phenomenon of migration in all its interrelations and manifestations;

2. new solutions to theoretical migration problems;

3. political considerations;

4. availability of financial resources and opportunities.

Non-governmental organizations conduct their own research on topics that are of particular interest to them and are useful for promoting the views they advocate. They understand how important it is to provide factual evidence that confirms the correctness of their policies or software installations. Like scientists, non-governmental organizations should seek outside financial support.

On the other hand, Philippine Migrants Rights Watch (PMRW), a network of ten non - governmental organizations, does not conduct research, and some of its member organizations do. This is especially true for the Scalabrini Migration Centre (SMC) and the Institute on Church and Social Issues (ICSI), whose main tasks are research.

International organizations operating in the Philippines, such as the International Organization for Migration (IOM) and the International Labour Organization (ILO), support migration-related research conducted by academics or academic institutions and non-governmental organizations. As for the ILO, it is not so much interested in supporting research in the Philippines that may affect migration policy, but rather in research that will result in programs, activities or services that will benefit people.

The Department of Labor and Employment (DOLE), a government agency that develops policies on labor migration abroad, has barely conducted a single official study of this phenomenon in many years. DOLE's subordinate organizations, the Philippine Overseas Employment Administration (POEA) and the Overseas Workers Welfare Administration (OWWA), both have their own research facilities, which are part of the DOLE Group of organizations that are part of the DOLE Group of organizations that are part of the DOLE Group of organizations that are part of the DOLE Group of organizations that are part of the DOLE Group of organizations that are part of the DOLE Group of organizations that are part of the DOLE Group of organizations that are part of the DOLE Group of organizations that are part of the DOLE Group of organizations that are part of the DOLE Group of organizations.-

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divisions and research budgets. Achievements include the creation of a three-year DOLE research plan in October 2001 and the establishment of an annual research conference. Several DOLE departments conduct research on various labor and employment issues within the Philippines.

Studies of migration from the Philippines are conducted by local and international researchers at the macro and micro levels. It examines the typical features of migration and its trends; the relationship between migration, development, and macroeconomic factors; labor recruitment; the impact of migration on individuals, families, and communities; the causes and motivations of migration; women and migration; migration policy; and the welfare and rights of migrant workers.

Research on these topics is conducted in a particular country or region. The most popular region is Asia and Asian countries, followed by the migration of Filipinos to the United States.

Representativeness of this study

Interviews were conducted with 13 people: six politicians (three representing the executive branch and three representing the legislative branch), four representatives of non-governmental organizations, and three researchers. One of the main difficulties of this study was that it was very difficult to get meetings with key informants, especially with politicians from Congress and the Department of Labor and Employment (DOLE). During the congressional budget hearings for fiscal year 2002, officials from various ministries were required to appear in Congress to defend their budget proposals. When politicians were too busy to meet with them, they had to find replacements for key informants.

As for non-governmental organizations, the head of the seafarers ' trade union flatly refused to meet. After two other representatives of non-governmental organizations who were selected as informants postponed their previously scheduled meetings three times, they had to be excluded from the list of informants. Due to the busy work schedule, it was not possible to arrange a conversation with seven politicians: two senators, two members of the House of Representatives, two employees of the Department of Labor and Employment, one employee of the Commission on Filipinos Abroad.

The scale of the study is such that it is impossible to make generalizations based on mass surveys, it is about personal perception of the impact of research on politics. The paper would benefit if it used information that could be provided by representatives of non-governmental organizations and politicians who could not be interviewed through no fault of the authors.

Political context

In the Philippines, policy-making is handled by the legislative and executive branches of Government. Congress, the legislative branch, enacts laws, and the relevant department of the executive branch develops the rules and regulations necessary for the implementation of this law. Political directives may come from the executive branch in the form of orders or instructions from the Ministry. The development of public policy at the legislative level is often a long and boring process, which is influenced by many interrelated factors, from personal to social and political. The passage of a bill depends on the degree of popular dissatisfaction, approval by the President of the Philippines, the preferences of the chairman of the House or Senate committee to which the bill was submitted, the relationship between the legislator who promotes the bill and the chairman of the House or Senate committee to which the bill was submitted, and/or the relationship between the technical staff of the legislator and the technical secretary of this committee.

Usually, the initiative is related to bills that are put forward by the Federal Antimonopoly Service of the Russian Federation.-

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senators and congressmen, including those related to migration, come from a legislator, non-governmental organization, or other interested group. The technical staff of the legislator can help prepare a preliminary version of the draft law, or the legislator can contact the relevant state organization with a request to provide technical support in the development of the draft law. On the other hand, the initiative to propose a draft law may come from a non-governmental organization or an interested group that submits a preliminary version of the draft law to the legislator, whose assistance they expect.

The law that regulates various aspects of migration abroad, both temporary and permanent, is called Republic Act 8042 (the Migrant Workers and Filipinos Abroad Act of 1995). The purpose of this law is to increase the protection of migrant workers, their families and other Filipinos abroad. The Ministry of Labor and Employment (DOLE) and the Department of Foreign Affairs (DFA) have developed the rules and instructions necessary for the Act to work in practice. The DOLE was responsible for developing the rules and regulations governing temporary labor migration, and the rules and regulations governing permanent migration (emigration) were prepared by the DFA. The Office of Overseas Filipinos Recruitment (POEA) and the Office of Overseas Workers 'Assistance (OWWA) are the executive branches of the Ministry of Labor and Employment, while the Commission on Overseas Filipinos' Issues is the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. It is difficult to amend the law, but the rules and regulations are periodically reviewed and corrected as necessary.

Approaches to migration research

The political situation in the Philippines leaves much to be desired. The country's political decision-making process is generally considered "satisfying" 4 rather than rational.

Politicians want to achieve "good enough" rather than the best possible outcome (Gonzales, 1998). Policy decisions are often made on the basis of incomplete information and without using the results of systematic research.

Policy makers interviewed by the authors of this study noted the importance of systematic research for policy decision-making, but acknowledged that the results of work done by scientists and research institutes are very little directly used in policy decision-making. All other informants unanimously supported this observation. Moreover, it has been stated that even if experts are consulted, "they are often used to endorse pre-determined decisions for the benefit of certain groups" (Center for Integrative and Development Studies, 2000). For this reason, one of the key informants interviewed by the authors of this study interrupted his participation in one of these consultation meetings on the 1995 Act. In the context of Philippine political realities, researchers and representatives of non-governmental organizations spend a lot of time lobbying, negotiating, and communicating with politicians and other decision-makers.

Non-governmental organizations are the most convinced and persistent supporters of the implementation of certain policies. The view that non-governmental organizations represent the interests of migrant workers is true. An important area of activity of many non-governmental organizations dealing with migration is the promotion of political solutions at the legislative level. There are also non-governmental organizations that limit themselves to trying to influence ministries to make decisions that meet the interests of the groups and strata of society that these organizations represent.

Non-governmental organizations use a variety of methods to,

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to be heard and influence policy. They engage in congressional lobbying, debate and negotiate with politicians, conduct research, and build formal and informal relationships with politicians and other non-governmental organizations. They also use print and electronic media to voice their position. Realizing that their strength depends on their numbers, some non-governmental organizations use the strategy of creating formal unions and coalitions of non-governmental organizations to increase their influence on politics.

Over the past 25 years, migration researchers, especially those who have worked in universities, have made little effort to influence the development of migration policy in Congress and the executive branch. None of the people interviewed reported that they helped draft legislation, lobbied Congress, or regularly sent their general and practical policy proposals or copies of their research reports to lawmakers or employees of relevant government agencies in the executive branch. The exceptions are two studies conducted in 1997 under the auspices of the Center for Integrative and Development Studies University of the Philippines (Samonte, 1997; Baviera, Asis, and Tigno, 1997). These researchers attempted to directly influence migration policies for domestic workers in view of the impending handover of Hong Kong to China. Since the work was not completed and the transfer took place during the Asian financial crisis, it is unclear whether these studies had a specific impact on policy.

Researchers and scientists maintain regular contacts with non-governmental organizations and politicians in public authorities on an informal basis. Policy makers, especially from government agencies dealing with migration, are usually invited to attend seminars, conferences, and other events on migration topics organized by researchers. Although high-ranking decision-makers rarely attend such forums themselves, unless they are dedicated to the issues they are directly involved in, they almost always send representatives. It is impossible to determine how fully these representatives inform politicians. Non-governmental organizations are also invited to attend. However, senators and congressmen, who are an important part of policy makers, are rarely invited to such events. Attempts to maintain informal connections are mutual, and non-governmental organizations and government agencies invite researchers as speakers or interested listeners to the events they organize.

International organizations, such as the International Organization for Migration and the International Labour Organization, try to exert indirect influence on migration policy by providing opportunities for politicians, non-governmental organizations and researchers to meet to discuss the political aspects of migration, by funding research on migration issues and communicating their results to politicians, and by moral persuasion.

Resume

The main problems for the Philippines are temporary labor migration and the loss of qualified professionals who leave permanently. The rights, working conditions and living conditions of Filipino citizens working abroad are the primary concerns of their families, non-governmental organizations and authorities. Almost all of the key informants interviewed by the authors of this study expressed the opinion that research, especially academic research conducted by academics, has little or no impact on Philippine migration policy. This can be considered their subjective opinion, but it is very difficult to find out the real impact, because when de-

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When it comes to making political decisions, many factors begin to influence this process.

Thailand

Overview of current migration trends Migration flows in Thailand are made up of refugees, labor immigrants from neighboring countries, Thai labor migrants and foreign tourists. The main trends over the past ten years are as follows:

- 1.63 million Thais have left the country to work abroad. In the 1990s, the main direction of labor migration changed: previously it was the Middle East, now the Asia-Pacific region. The new destinations are Taiwan, Korea, Japan, Hong Kong, Singapore, Brunei and Malaysia;

- in most countries of the Asia-Pacific region, where Thais travel, the demand for unskilled labor has decreased. This has directly affected Thai workers, most of whom are not qualified. They now have to travel through illegal recruitment agencies or with the help of friends or relatives;

- when the number of immigrant workers increased dramatically, the government took care of this problem. It is estimated that the number of migrant workers reached one million by 1996. The vast majority of them are illegal immigrants, the largest group is citizens of Myanmar;

- it was announced that the recruitment of 106,684 workers in 18 specialties in 34 provinces would be allowed in 1999-2000, but due to the lack of clear policies and gaps in legislation, it was not possible to keep the number of migrant workers under control.

Brief outline of the migration study The study of migration began in Thailand relatively recently. Here are some of the main research topics on migration issues: labor migration; border control and the economy of border areas; migrants in the sexual services market; legal and illegal migration. In the 1990s, emigration researchers focused on migrants ' remittances to their homeland and their role in the country's development, as well as the causes and consequences of new migration flows in Asia. Special attention was paid to the protection of Thais working abroad. Immigration research topics include the following:: the spread of AIDS and population displacement, the development of economic sectors related to the Thai sex industry, the delivery of Burmese women to Thailand, and the health status of Cambodians in refugee camps in Thailand.

The economic crisis has contributed to the quantitative growth of research conducted by scientists, international organizations, and non-governmental organizations. Topics such as the safety and security of female migrant workers, the social impact of women's migration on the households they have left, and the reduction in wage rates in certain sectors caused by migration are being studied. Non-governmental organizations conduct research on the protection of migrant women in the countries where they work, on the health of migrants, and publish research results.

State ministries - the Ministry of Labor and the Ministry of Recruitment-have taken care of the safety and security of Thai migrant workers and have started publishing reference books on employment opportunities and conditions abroad. The main topic of the study of immigration was the processes taking place on the border between Thailand and Myanmar, as many Burmese who have left their native places migrate en masse to Thailand.

Research projects on migration are mainly funded from two sources. The first source is the government, universities, and the Thailand Research Fund (TRF). Other source of funding-

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For example, the Japan Foundation, the Ford Foundation, HUME, the ILO, and the World Health Organization (WHO).

Most research is carried out by scientists working alone or under the auspices of centers. Among them are the Asian Research Center for Migration, the Institute for Population and Social Research, and the Thailand Development Research Institute. Research centers coordinate research conducted by scientists who teach at various institutes and universities. Some scientists who deal with migration issues without outside help are consultants to government agencies. Since 1997, non-governmental organizations have been actively involved in research. Government agencies (primarily the Development and Research Unit, the Ministry of Labor and Social Welfare (MLSW), the National Security Council, the National Economic and Social Development Board, and the Office of the Prime Minister of the Republic of Kazakhstan).they rarely conduct research or contract to conduct it. International organizations (ILO, YUM, WHO) are very active.

In recent years, joint projects of government agencies and scientific institutes have emerged. For example, the Institute for Asian Studies and the Ministry of Labor and Social Welfare conducted studies on the labor shortage (in 1998 and 2000) and the needs of migrant workers (in 2001).

Representativeness of this study

Interviews were conducted with 19 of the 30 key informants initially identified. Among them were seven government officials, seven representatives of non-governmental organizations and UN agencies, and five scientists. The reduction in the number of informants was due to the fact that government officials were being promoted and were going to take important positions in September-November.

Political context

The goals of the three research subjects-policy makers, non-governmental organizations, and academics-differ significantly. Politicians from government agencies focus on national security and political aspects. Non-governmental organizations are engaged in protecting migrants and solving their problems. Scientists conduct research that is of academic interest, as well as research that is useful to authorities and non-governmental organizations. Thus, the three groups have very different priorities.

Migration is influenced by many factors, including: national economic interests, the private sector, international organizations, and social issues. However, after the Asian crisis of 1997, the state does not make any adjustments to the migration policy in view of new problems.

Approaches to migration research

A number of ministries are showing interest in migration. Most ministries and policy-making departments stated that they use Thai-language reports on migration research conducted by the Asian Research Center for Migration (ARCM) and government organizations (the Ministry of Labor and Social Welfare and the National Security Council) to draw up plans related to population displacement Thailand. They also use previously prepared reports, as ministries do not want to duplicate research conducted by other organizations. English-language reports prepared by the International Labour Organization (ILO), the International Organization for Migration (IOM), and the Asia-Pacific Migration Research Service (APMRN) are also used.

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Many ministries and departments interviewed do not have their own budgets, nor do they have researchers on their staff. The Ministry of Employment has a research department and a budget. In the past, the Ministry has commissioned ARCM to conduct research, for example, on the problem of labor shortages. The Ministry of Employment conducts most of the research in cooperation with other government ministries and institutions, as they do not want the results to be biased.

Policy makers have to consider the economic and political feasibility of implementing the researchers ' recommendations. For example, a study on migrant labor policies recommended that working immigrants be granted basic rights (i.e., the right to work, education). However, it should be considered and evaluated taking into account the fact that its implementation will infringe on the interests of national security. The researchers also advised politicians to provide migrants and their families with free access to health care, but the costs were so high that the Government could not accept this recommendation.

Non-governmental organizations consider migration profitable. They believe that the role of migrants should be properly evaluated, since they transfer money to their homeland and contribute to the economic development of the country where they work. Recognizing the contribution of migrants is an important step towards protecting their rights and themselves.

Most of the non-governmental organizations interviewed stated that they used previous research to avoid duplicating existing research. They also mostly use ARCM migration research reports. Some non-governmental organizations believe that the Government rarely uses the results of migration studies because of their diversity.

The Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees has field offices to conduct research and carry out research projects from outside, prepared by scientists and experts working on a case-by-case basis. UNESCO and the United Nations Development Program (UNDP) do not employ researchers, but they do employ researchers working in the social sciences. On the other hand, many of the joint studies published by these two organizations are widely used by government agencies, academics, and some non-governmental organizations.

An interview with the Director of ARCM at the Institute of Asian Studies showed that ARCM usually conducts research on relevant topics. We study aspects of migration where problems arise. Recently, the state has increasingly used the results of research related to immigration, although there is an understanding that the results of research are not used enough. There is also a sense that government policy is not keeping up with the new problems that migration creates, and that we need to respond to them faster.

Resume

Thailand is concerned about ensuring the rights and decent working and living conditions of its citizens working abroad. The problems of immigrants living in Thai society do not remain without his attention. In a country that did not experience large-scale migration until the 1980s, there are challenges for policy makers and researchers. The peculiarities of thinking and working style of politicians are a serious obstacle to effective influence on politics through research. Most Thai politicians have never been involved in research work, and they do not consider it necessary to use the results of research. It seems that they make decisions on migration policy without taking into account or reading any research. This style can only be changed by a simple request.-

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However, an increase in their educational level and at least a short-term political experience will help them to understand the problems of migration. Comparative studies, by whomever they are conducted, are invaluable in closing existing research gaps.

Links between researchers, non-governmental organizations, and policy makers

Australia

In Australia, the direct impact of migration research on migration policy is limited to finding solutions to current problems that the Government is aware of. Interviews with Australian politicians reinforce the impression that migration policy in Australia is determined primarily by the need to solve current problems and issues.

There is a duality in Australian migration policy, where on the one hand, the emphasis is placed on the implementation of a "national" (federal) strategy, and on the other hand, the settlement of immigrants and the solution of social issues takes place within the framework of a broader migration strategy. This ambivalence leads to different agencies setting different priorities in migration policy, which ultimately leads to a dispersion of research in different areas.

DIMIA's approach to migration research is rather narrow, defined by a paradigm that assumes that politicians know what they are required to know. Even current problems can be difficult to solve with this approach. Long-term planning requires a more holistic and broad approach that requires additional knowledge. As in other academic disciplines, research by migration scientists plays an important role in determining what policy makers need to know in order to identify short-and long-term challenges and successfully address them. Fundamental research is necessary to direct applied research in the industrial sphere in a new and more creative direction. Basic research in the social sciences performs the same function. In Australia, the link between basic scientific research and the implementation of specific socio-economic tasks is very weak.

As a result, the political process proceeds in a way that preserves the status quo, rather than opening up new opportunities, options, and challenges that make it possible to build a long-term policy. Australia's current migration policy is determined by the Government's current objectives, its understanding of the challenges and its financial capabilities. Decisions are often made that fit into the prevailing political philosophy or have a positive impact on public opinion, but do not correspond to international obligations, the development of the human rights movement and the pressure of interested groups.

The chart below illustrates the links between research and policy as they exist in Australia. Its main distinguishing feature is the emphasis on indirect, hidden connections, which are shown in dashed lines. Direct links between public policy and scientific research are often formed outside the context of public discussions on broader issues.

Philippines

In the Philippines, as in other cases under review, research has a direct and indirect impact on policy, with the latter option prevailing. Research issues are determined with the participation of certain stakeholders, who are also intermediaries through which research influences policy. The indirect or less visible impact of research on migration policy is more difficult to document. The situation in the Philippines

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FIGURE 1. Australian research and policy links.

FIGURE 2. The Philippines policy and research links.

such is the fact that the impact of scientific research is more noticeable not at the stage of policy development, but later, when policy decisions are implemented, and development programs are reviewed.

Philippine politicians are primarily interested in specific issues related to the situation of Filipinos working abroad, so these issues are dealt with by many departments. All of them are contacted by non-governmental organizations on specific issues. Non-governmental organizations play a crucial role in communicating research findings to policy makers and implementing them in migration policy.

Figure 2 shows that researchers from academic institutions are almost completely excluded from the political decision-making process, and non-governmental and international organizations have the main influence on legislators and executive authorities. Since the main goal of migration policy is to protect the rights of Filipinos employed abroad and improve their working and living conditions, it is necessary to go international and do business with many countries.

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Thailand

One gets the impression that research has an impact on policy only if it is conducted on behalf of government organizations. In such cases, research topics and methods are determined by the authorities, the purpose of research may be tightly tied to political issues, academic standards of theory and methodology may not be observed, and results may not be published, especially if they are not liked by officials. The Government can accept the recommendations, as it did in 1998, when quotas for accepting migrant workers were approved, which were proposed by the Asian Migration Research Center (ARCM), or it can ignore them. There are factors that make it impossible to implement the recommendations for political and economic reasons. Non-governmental organizations submit the results of their independent research to the authorities, although they are not assigned to conduct research by the State authorities.

Scientists also conduct independent research and present their results to government organizations. Non-governmental organizations often hire researchers to study specific issues. When research is not commissioned, there are no permanent links between researchers and policy makers, and the researcher does not know whether his research will be taken into account and whether it will have any impact on migration policy.

The lack of seminars and other interactive forms of presenting research results is one of the obstacles to making them known to policy makers and influencing them. When there are no such presentations, only those who work on request or have direct access to officials can advise the authorities and make their own proposals, while this becomes impossible for other teams of scientists. The time factor is also important, because qualitative research sometimes begins to influence policy too late. In addition, some politicians question the correctness of the research methodology, and concern is expressed about the possible bias of researchers.

Informal links between politicians, non-governmental organizations, and academics are established on a personal level. Non-governmental organizations are mostly sidelined. Neither the authorities nor scientists usually sign contracts with non-governmental organizations, but rather ask them to keep them informed about the situation on the ground, since local offices of non-governmental organizations can be used to inform them about the situation on the ground.

FIGURE 3. Thai research and policy links.

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establish links with key informants on the ground. Non-governmental organizations are more involved when a group of researchers conducts field research. Non-governmental organizations are well aware of the area where researchers work and have information that is difficult for outsiders to obtain.

The existing links between policy and research in Thailand are shown in figure 3. The main distinguishing features are contradictions between government organizations on certain political issues, direct assignment of research tasks to consultants from scientific institutions, weak coordination between departments and the diversity of research topics.

Significance of the findings for migration researchers, the Asia-Pacific Migration Research Service (APMRN) and its country office, the project has produced very interesting results regarding policy decision-making. It is useful for optimizing the effectiveness of the impact of international network research structures, such as APMRN. Not only do migration trends and types differ significantly, but policy development mechanisms also differ significantly. For migration and APMRN researchers, this project implies the following.

Knowledge of the political and economic context of each society is essential to understand the nature of migration research conducted there and its potential impact on policy makers. The migration researcher works in an environment where different value systems co-exist. People's perceptions of immigration and emigration are closely linked to their understanding of national and ethnic identity, the right to citizenship, the country's economic well-being, the availability of jobs, the "right" to work, access to education, medicine and other social services, and many other aspects of their daily lives. Research has to be conducted in an electrified political atmosphere. In addition, researchers have their own political views, value systems, and ideological orientations, so it is unrealistic to expect them to be completely impartial.

There is an even more important circumstance. According to the theory, migration policy is determined by many circumstances, primarily by three factors: 1) the attitude to the rights of citizens, immigrants, labor migrants and "temporary" migrants; 2) the ability of an interested group or lobbyists to influence politicians; and 3) the role of the state. The role of these three factors varies from country to country, but to identify links between research and policy, it is important to analyze the context of policy decision-making. A migration researcher needs to understand the people they are dealing with and try to find the most productive way to work.

In the case of Australia, this may mean that DIMIA needs to be persuaded to commission research and use its results in public discussion. In the Philippines, this may mean getting close to lawmakers and influential people and keeping them informed of research results. Migration researchers can learn a lot from non-governmental organizations in this regard. Research can have a stronger impact on migration policy at the stage of political decision-making and afterward, when it is implemented, if it is possible to combine the efforts of major research organizations and individual researchers. This can be achieved through cooperation and additional research, or through other migration activities. In Thailand, this may mean using the support of a reputable research center to persuade the government to order a study or listen to it.

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recommendations from another research organization.

Research that is conducted in collaboration with researchers and policy makers is an ideal option. This can be achieved by involving policy makers in forums as section leaders. This sometimes happens while performing research on behalf of government agencies. Bedford (2000, p.7) emphasizes that "establishing business cooperation between social scientists and politicians requires excellent interaction between universities and research institutes on the one hand and political organizations on the other." Building relationships between the two groups takes a lot of time. APMRN needs to transform its country offices into "long-term, dynamic network structures that will allow for constant and effective contacts between participants operating both in the country and internationally" (Bedford, 2001, p.160).

A study of the situation in three countries showed the value of formal and informal contacts with politicians in all cases. In the Philippines, the impact of research on policy can be enhanced by strengthening relationships with interested government officials (including legislators), civil society organizations, and the media.

It is necessary to act ahead of time, this applies to basic and applied research. Migration researchers need to study in depth current and fundamental issues. When a topic becomes politically relevant, they should be armed with relevant data and knowledge. Decisions on migration policy are made quickly, in a hurry, and often there is no time to order or conduct a thorough study of the problem that has arisen.

The results of research can be communicated to policy makers informally, through conferences, seminars, presentations to commissions of inquiry, or through the media. Researchers should use all of these methods to communicate their findings to the public and policy makers. Priority forms of dissemination of information should be those that are needed for a given range of readers, in our case politicians, who do not focus on the specific features of a particular study.

It is difficult to judge "bias", since governments have different approaches to migration, and they do not necessarily coincide with the approaches of migration researchers. Researchers who do not share the authorities ' approaches believe that the authorities entrust research only to those who stand in their positions. A conflict can be resolved by deep, compelling research that is free from political bias and scientology. In this situation, statistical research is more appropriate; analytical research should be as scientific as possible.

The" views " of research structures and researchers are of great importance. Governments, if they see that researchers are holding a certain position, will avoid contact with them in every possible way. Research structures within the country should present a wide range of opinions, they should be open to exchange of views and discussions, and some position should not dominate.

The Asia-Pacific Migration Research Service (APMRN) and similar networks enable "North-South conceptual convergence" (Stein et al., 2001, p. 138). This is already clearly evident in the preparation and implementation of comparative research projects in a number of countries/regions, in the exchange of information at international meetings of coordinators, international and non-governmental organizations that take place every eighteen months, as well as in the publication of working materials. APMRN very effectively performs the coordinating function, which is included in it

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17 countries / regions have benefited greatly from their participation.

APMRN needs to expand the scope of its activities in order to have a more significant impact on the nature of research and policy decision-making. The migration study in the Philippines found that APMRN should develop regional research topics, include the most pressing issues, and organize regional seminars on research topics. It also showed that APMRN should conduct joint research with representatives of political circles on a bilateral or multilateral basis, in which politicians and/or other civil society groups and other intermediaries of each participating country will participate from the very beginning. The study of migration in the Philippines also highlighted the need for regional seminars for policy makers, researchers, and / or representatives of civil society institutions to disseminate research findings. These recommendations undoubtedly apply to other transnational research networks as well.

The purpose of this article was not to describe the work of APMRN, but when considering the role of the secretariat or coordinating body in organizing the management of this network structure, several general points of interest emerged. Stein (2001, pp. 146-47) calls for more research into how interdisciplinary networks accumulate and disseminate knowledge. They highlight the important role that support structures within the organization, especially the Secretariat and country coordinators, play in this regard. "If these network structures do not recognize that only universities, both in the North and in the South, can train future researchers and disseminate knowledge in the countries where they are located (this can be expressed in laying down funds for administrative and indirect costs when financing projects that their departments perform), the return will be small. Universities, departments, non - governmental organizations and the private sector should work together and profitably, but a formal contractual relationship should be established where all partners, whether departments, universities or non-governmental organizations themselves, receive the funding needed to carry out their tasks in an integrated collaboration. In order for the network structure to work effectively, partners must contribute as much as possible to the common cause and receive according to their needs." (Stein etal., 2001, p. 147)

Finally, Stein (2001, p. 147^8) emphasizes the need for long-term financing of network structures so that they continue to innovate without hindrance. The results of this study confirm this opinion. Network structures should be flexible and creative, and their work should not be hindered by "constant concern" about whether they will be extended funding or not.

Conclusion

Each country has a unique situation in terms of links between migration policy and research, so it is necessary to study all countries in the region and their economies. Only then will researchers be able to develop a research strategy and communicate their results to the public, so that they can discuss these results.

Network structures need an influx of political scientists and public relations specialists. These aspects should be taken into account when financing, and only then will network structures funded by international organizations be effective in the political arena.

Migration research networks should learn three key lessons: First. The most powerful influence on politics, public opinion, and politicians is achieved indirectly. This is a difficult task. Involvement of well-organized non-governmental organizations in research-

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Grassroots organizations can help make the discussions in which these organizations participate more lively. Second. Researchers working in network structures should understand that the results of their research are unlikely to have an impact on politicians if they are only published in scientific publications. They need to master the "distribution mechanism" to make the discussion more meaningful in regions where the authorities control or depend on voters. The third. The most direct way to influence policy is through research directly commissioned by government agencies. Therefore, research networks should use the "available" opportunities to involve government agencies in discussions within these structures. These can be invitations to thematic seminars or permanent representation in structures.

Notes

1 For the operation of these services, with the exception of Metropolis, see Stein et al (2001).

2 Taiwan is an informal member of the APMRN.

3 The current Chair of APMRN is Associate Professor Tasnim Siddiqui (University of Dhaka, Bangladesh).

4 "Satisfying" - a socio-psychological attitude when the decision maker does not necessarily choose the best course, but chooses "good enough". This concept was formed as a result of the combination of the words" to be satisfactory "("satisfy") and "to be sufficient" (suffice).

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