Evolutionary psychologists, ethologists, anthropologists and sociologists around the world use marriage announcements as a source material, a base for studying various problems related to male and female preferences in choosing a marriage partner. Based on the limited information provided about a potential partner, a person makes their choice and gets the opportunity to answer the questionnaire or offer a direct meeting. Marriage ads are now a common way to search for spouses in Western Europe, North America, Japan, Russia, and many other countries around the world, including India [Greenlees and McGrew, 1994; Pawlowski and Koziel, 2002; Oda, 2001; Waynforth and Dunbar, 1995]. The main objective of this article is to identify gender differences in strategies for choosing a marriage partner based on data from Indian marriage announcements published in print publications, and to evaluate them from the standpoint of theories of reproductive success and parental contribution proposed by R. Travers and D. Kollinger. Simons [Trivers, 1972; Symons, 1979].
Keywords: Indians, choice of marriage partner, theory of reproductive success, theory of parental contribution, marriage announcements.
Personal ads contain information about the most attractive character traits and appearance of men and women, hobbies, social status, as well as a number of requirements for a potential partner.
In this study, we put forward the following null hypotheses:: 1. Even in a tightly regulated Indian society, strategies for choosing a permanent sexual partner work according to the evolutionary paradigm. 2. Men and women clearly differ in the requirements for the qualities of a future marriage partner. 3. Caste influences the choice of marriage partner. 4. Representatives of North and South India are guided by the same qualities when choosing a partner.
SPECIFIC FEATURES OF CHOOSING A MARRIAGE PARTNER IN INDIAN SOCIETY
Both men and women in India need to get married in order to fulfill their destiny in this world. The family performs an important function of preserving and passing on traditions to the next generation. A person may not enter into a marriage union only because of special circumstances: physical or mental illness, the choice of a hermit life - otherwise he falls into contempt on the part of society. When entering into marriage, Hindus face a number of difficulties. They are obliged to act within the framework of strict laws, the main one of which is the choice of a marriage partner in accordance with caste. Along with the prev-
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Endogamy is the most important rule of common origin, professional specialization, and religious commitment [Kutsenkov, 1983, p. 31]. A person should marry only within their own caste group. In addition, within each caste, there are gotras (clans) that include blood relatives. Since the union of two young people from the same gotra is prohibited, the circle of potential partners narrows even more. It is allowed, however, to marry a man with a girl from a lower caste. However, the reverse situation entails inevitable troubles. If a girl marries a young man from a lower caste, she passes into the husband's caste and their children also belong to the father's caste [Albedil, 2005, p. 366]. Even more tragic is the case of a woman who has entered into a marriage alliance with a member of another religious faith. It is completely excluded from the caste system. A prominent and frequently mentioned example is Indira Gandhi, the daughter of Indian Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru. She married Firozshah Gandhi, who was a Parsi by religious affiliation. Indira and her children found themselves outside the caste (Ultsiferov, 2005, p. 837).
The second, equally important criterion is Sapind's rule. It consists in the fact that a young man and a girl should not be related. This concept of kinship includes the presence of a common ancestor on the father's side in the seventh generation and on the mother's side along the ascending and descending lines in the fifth generation. It is worth mentioning that there are regional differences within the country. Thus, in Northern India, this rule is strictly observed, while in the south of the country cross-family marriages were used, and in Gujarat, marriage between relatives in the fourth generation is still allowed [Albedil, 2005, p. 357; Ultsiferov, 2005, p.839].
Parents are always involved in choosing a marriage partner. The father begins to search for a suitable match. Some focus on age, others on the dowry collected, and still others are more concerned about being prepared for married life. The "Laws of Manu" has developed a list of indicators that must be taken into account when choosing a bride: "You should not marry a red-haired girl with an extra penis, sickly, hairless, too hairy, talkative, red-eyed. Let him not marry a girl who bears the name of a constellation, a tree, a river, a low caste, a mountain, a bird, a snake, a servant, or an obsolete name. It is necessary to marry a woman who is free from physical defects, has a pleasant name, the gait of a swan or elephant, delicate hair on the body and head, beautiful teeth, and tender limbs" (Elmanovich, 1960, p.256). The qualities of the bridegroom are described in the following words:" Let the bridegroom have the same virtues as the bride, from the same Varna, be a learned brahmana, carefully tested in relation to his courage (i.e., whether he can be a father), young, understanding and kind people " [Elmanovich, 1960, p.257]. A young man and a girl must be virgins, and a violation of this rule is perceived as a disgrace for the whole family [Vanina, 2008, p. 326].
In most cases, the girl's parents are looking for a potential groom (Semashko, 1997, p. 302). Relatives, acquaintances, and friends take part in this process. As soon as a suitable candidate appears, the parents of the girl and the boy meet. They get to know each other better, discuss the nuances of the ceremony, the size of the dowry is mandatory, and if both parties are satisfied, preparations for the wedding procession begin. So the betrothal of the young is made. Invite an astrologer, without the forecast of which no important event in the life of a Hindu can do. He pre-builds a horoscope of compatibility of future spouses and determines a favorable wedding date [Yurlova, 2005, p. 386]. When choosing a partner for their child, parents make inquiries not only about the intended spouse, but also about the family as a whole. This process can take years, as the circle of potential partners is quite narrow.
Due to the changes in Indian society, there are also transformations in the marriage sphere. Many parents today take into account the opinion of young people and allow their children to choose their own pair [Glushkova, 2003, p. 1; Guseva, 2002, p. 236]. Today
page 47
women work on an equal basis with men and take an active part in the social and political life of the country. They are often financially independent and more free to make decisions. So, in 2007, for the first time, a woman became the president of India - Pratibha Patil. As a rule, with an increase in the level of female education, the probability of choosing a marriage partner independently increases.
Today in India, the practice of marriage announcements in the press is widespread. This method of finding a partner causes an ambiguous attitude in society. Some believe that this is the very last way out of the current situation and, perhaps, that those who turn to marriage announcements have some shortcomings [Glushkova, 2003, p. 156]. Others, such as Professor Hemachandra Pande 1, a lecturer at Jawaharlal Nehru University in Delhi, believe that the choice of a spouse for a marriage announcement is not something shameful, and, on the contrary, they see it as a real help in such a difficult task.
RESEARCH METHODS
To test these hypotheses, a study was conducted on marriage ads placed in the Indian newspapers "Sunday Times of India" (New Delhi) and "The Hindu" (Madras). In the course of the study, 1,100 ads were analyzed, of which 563 belong to boys and 537 belong to girls. Applications were submitted by respondents aged between 21 and 49 years (average age-28 years).
The content of the ads was divided into two blocks. The first block contains the author's own description of the application. The information includes the applicant's gender, caste and religious affiliation (for the south), language of communication (for the South), age, height, description of appearance, intelligence, build, skin color (shade), homeworthiness, level of education, employment, income level, astrological indicators, early marriage, information about the next of kin, food preferences. The second block is a description of the qualities of a potential partner and combines similar parameters: appearance, intelligence level, body type, height, age, skin color, education, employment, well-being, domesticity, caste and religious commitment (for the south of the country), taste preferences (vegetarianism), family information, horoscope requirement, biometric data data and / or photos, the need for a dowry.
Some of these characteristics were ranked in the range from 1 to 4, where " 1 "means the highest score, and" 4 " means the lowest. Certain parameters were encoded in the presence or absence mode of this indicator, respectively 1 and 0.
For the convenience of interpreting the results, the names of castes were grouped into three groups: Brahmans, non-Brahmans, and" untouchables " (Gendin, 1986, p.37). The data were processed using a statistical method using the SPSS-13.0 software package for Windows. To analyze the data obtained, we used the Student's t-test, which allows us to establish significant differences between a number of characteristics in men and women.
results
At the first stage of the study, we found out how ad authors describe themselves and what parameters they want to see in future partners. Marriage ads placed in newspapers in North and South India were analyzed.
Characteristics of men and women from the North of India: suggested and sought.
361 ads were received from young men. Table 1 shows the characteristics used to describe themselves by young men in the northern region of India.
1 Personal interview given by Hemachandra to Pande D. A. Dronova (17.01.2008).
page 48
Table 1
Distribution of categories based on personal characteristics of representatives of the northern region
Indicator
Group
Young men
Girls
N
%
N
%
Caste
the brahmans
109
30.2
169
49.9
the nebrachmans
252
69.8
170
50.2
former "untouchables"
0
0
0
0
you didn't specify it
0
0
0
0
Ad authorship
by yourself
307
85.0
308
90.9
parents
54
15.0
31
9.1
Place of residence
abroad (USA)
56 (40)
23.6
43 (39)
21.8
you didn't specify it
321
78.5
296
87.3
Appearance
you specified it
111
30.7
176
51.9
you didn't specify it
250
69.3
163
48.1
Age
you specified it
358
99.2
339
100
you didn't specify it
3
8
0
0
Level of intelligence
you specified it
23
6.4
42
12.4
you didn't specify it
338
93.6
297
87.6
Height
you specified it
356
98.6
335
98.8
you didn't specify it
5
1.4
4
1.2
Body type
you specified it
0
0
95
28
you didn't specify it
361
100
244
72
Skin tone
you specified it
31
8.6
172
50.7
you didn't specify it
330
91.4
167
49.3
Domovity
you specified it
0
0
28
8.3
you didn't specify it
361
100
311
91.7
Level of education
bachelor
52
14.4
57
16.8
master
147
40.7
178
52.5
academic degree
6
1.7
17
5
you didn't specify it
156
43.2
87
25.7
Employment rate
you specified it
339
93.9
224
66.1
you didn't specify it
22
6.1
115
33.9
Income level
you specified it
110
30.5
25
7.4
you didn't specify it
251
69.5
314
92.6
Having an early marriage
you specified it
24
6.6
46
13.6
you didn't specify it
337
93.4
293
86.4
page 49
Table 1 (end)
Indicator
Group
Young men
Girls
N
%
N
%
Family Information
you specified it
97
26.9
118
34.8
you didn't specify it
264
73.1
221
65.2
Commitment in food
you specified it
9
2.5
8
2.4
you didn't specify it
352
97.5
331
97.6
Refusal of dowry
you specified it
8
2.2
2
0.6
you didn't specify it
353
97.8
337
99.4
Additional information
horoscope
141
39.3
97
28.6
bioavailments
10
1.9
6
1.8
photo
8
0.6
3
0.6
you didn't specify it
210
58.2
234
69
Table 2
Distribution of categories by indicators of preferred characteristics of a potential partner based on materials from the northern region
Indicator
Group
Young men
Girls
N
%
N
%
Caste
similar
42
11
40
11.8
it does not matter
25
6.9
12
3.5
you didn't specify it
294
81.4
287
84.7
Appearance
you specified it
185
51.2
7
2.1
you didn't specify it
176
48.8
332
97.9
Level of intelligence
you specified it
29
8.0
1
0.3
you didn't specify it
332
92.0
338
99.7
Body type
you specified it
43
11.9
0
0
you didn't specify it
318
88.1
339
100
Height
you specified it
74
20.5
5
1.5
you didn't specify it
287
79.5
334
98.5
Skin tone
you specified it
53
14.7
3
0.9
you didn't specify it
308
85.3
336
99.1
Level of education
you specified it
246
68.1
109
32.2
you didn't specify it
115
31.9
230
67.8
Employment rate
you specified it
32
8.9
4
1.2
you didn't specify it
329
91.1
335
98.8
Well arranged
you specified it
0
0
32
9.4
you didn't specify it
361
100
307
90.6
page 50
Table 2 (end)
Indicator
Group
Young men
Girls
N
%
N
%
Domovity
you specified it
28
7.8
0
0
you didn't specify it
333
92.2
339
100
Family Information
you specified it
47
13.0
15
4.4
you didn't specify it
314
87.0
324
95.6
Commitment in food
you specified it
8
2.2
6
1.8
you didn't specify it
353
97.8
333
98.2
Age
you specified it
7
1.9
3
0.9
you didn't specify it
354
98.1
336
99.1
Table 3
Distribution of categories based on their own characteristics of representatives of the southern region
Indicator
Group
Young men
Girls
N
%
N
%
Language
Canada
5
2.5
7
3.5
malayalam
21
10.6
44
21.9
marathi
3
1.5
2
1.0
punjabi
1
0.5
1
0.5
tamils
159
79.9
91
45.3
telugu
5
2.5
47
23.4
URDU
5
2.5
9
4.5
Caste
the brahmans
7
3.5
11
5.5
the nebrachmans
149
74.9
133
66.2
former "untouchables"
22
11.1
27
13.4
you didn't specify it
21
10.6
30
14.9
Religion
hinduism
161
80.9
155
77.1
christianity
32
16.1
30
14.9
islam
6
3.0
16
8.0
Ad authorship
by yourself
178
89.4
155
77.1
parents
21
10.6
46
22.9
Place of residence
abroad (USA)
33 (23)
11.6 (5)
12 (8)
6.0 (4.0)
you didn't specify it
166
83.4
189
94.0
Appearance
you specified it
19
9.5
35
17.4
you didn't specify it
180
90.5
166
82.6
page 51
Table 3 (end)
Indicator
Group
Young men
Girls
N
%
N
%
Age
you specified it
199
100
201
100
you didn't specify it
0
0
0
0
Height
you specified it
173
86.9
180
89.6
you didn't specify it
26
13.1
21
10.4
Level of intelligence
you specified it
3
1.5
4
2.0
you didn't specify it
196
98.5
197
98.0
Body type
you specified it
1
0.5
19
9.5
you didn't specify it
198
99.5
182
90.5
Skin tone
you specified it
29
14.6
100
49.8
you didn't specify it
170
85.4
101
50.2
Domovity
you specified it
0
0
2
1.0
you didn't specify it
199
100
199
99.0
Level of education
bachelor
81
40.7
91
45.3
master
77
38.7
79
39.3
academic degree
5
2.5
7
3.5
you didn't specify it
36
18.1
24
11.9
Employment rate
you specified it
191
96.0
141
70.1
you didn't specify it
8
4.0
60
29.9
Income level
you specified it
71
35.7
34
16.9
you didn't specify it
128
64.3
167
83.1
Having an early marriage
you specified it
1
0.5
6
3.0
you didn't specify it
198
99.5
195
97.0
Family Information
you specified it
18
9.0
21
10.4
you didn't specify it
181
91.0
180
89.6
Commitment in food
you specified it
3
1.5
1
0.5
you didn't specify it
196
98.5
200
99.5
Refusal of dowry
you specified it
3
1.5
-
-
you didn't specify it
196
98.5
201
100
Additional information
horoscope
65
32.2
53
28.2
bioavailments
13
2.0
20
4.0
photo
19
9.0
16
3.1
you didn't specify it
113
56.8
130
64.7
page 52
Regarding the requirements of young people to the qualities of a girl, the picture is as follows (Table 2). Young men in the fairer sex were interested in almost the same characteristics that they listed in their own description.
We analyzed 339 women's ads. The ad texts received from girls in the northern region of India contained similar information to that posted by men about themselves (Table 1). The characteristics of their own portraits used by girls are presented in Table 1. 1. It is noteworthy that girls made fewer demands on the desired partners than boys (Table 2).
Characteristics of men and women from the southern region of India: suggested and sought. Out of a total sample of 1,100 texts, 400 ads were received from the south of India (199 ads from boys, 201 ads from girls). Table 3 shows the characteristics that young men and women of the southern region used to describe their portrait. By default, the second half of the ad, both for boys and girls, is devoted to describing the desired qualities of a potential partner (Table 4).
Table 4
Distribution of preferred indicators of a potential partner based on materials from the south of the country
Indicator
Group
Young men
Girls
N
%
N
%
Caste
similar
39
19.6
36
17.9
it does not matter
14
7.0
15
7.5
you didn't specify it
146
73.4
150
74.6
Religion
similar
15
7.5
14
7.0
you didn't specify it
184
92.5
187
93.0
Appearance
you specified it
47
23.6
3
1.5
you didn't specify it
152
76.4
198
98.5
Level of intelligence
you specified it
2
1.0
1
0.5
you didn't specify it
197
99.0
200
99.5
Body type
you specified it
7
3.5
0
0
you didn't specify it
192
96.5
201
100
Height
you specified it
3
1.5
2
1.0
you didn't specify it
196
98.5
199
99.0
Skin tone
you specified it
41
20.6
3
1.5
you didn't specify it
158
79.4
198
98.5
Level of education
you specified it
129
64.8
117
58.2
you didn't specify it
70
35.2
84
41.8
Employment rate
you specified it
27
13.6
53
26.4
you didn't specify it
172
84.6
148
73.6
page 53
Table 4 (end)
Indicator
Group
Young men
Girls
N
%
N
%
Well arranged
you specified it
2
1.0
17
8.5
you didn't specify it
197
99.0
184
91.5
Domovity
you specified it
7
3.5
1
0.5
you didn't specify it
192
96.5
200
99.5
Family Information
you specified it
30
15.1
28
13.9
you didn't specify it
169
84.9
173
86.1
Commitment in food
you specified it
3
1.5
1
0.5
you didn't specify it
196
98.5
200
99.5
Age
you specified it
25
12.6
14
7.0
you didn't specify it
174
87.4
187
93.0
Gender differences in the description of the partner's own and desired characteristics. Northern region. It was possible to identify significant differences between boys and girls in the description of their image. Men considered it more important to provide information about their employment in a particular professional field and specify the level of annual income, while girls paid more attention to their appearance, physique, skin color, intelligence level, homeworthiness, early marriage, and information about their family (Table 5).
Both sexes agreed on the importance of education - no significant differences were found in this indicator. Also, horoscope descriptions and taste preferences were equally significant for men and women (Table 5).
We found gender differences in the preferences of the potential partner's qualities. When describing the desired bride, young men focused on her physical characteristics: appearance, build, height, skin color (shade), and women were more interested in the education and employment of a potential partner than men (Table 6).
The qualities of a good hostess turned out to be more significant for male representatives. Also, young men were more likely than girls to stipulate the welfare of the family of a potential partner (Table 6). But female representatives were more often interested in the indicator "well-established" in contrast to young men.
The parameters "intellectual ability", caste affiliation, taste preferences, and the presence of a special planetary arrangement in the horoscope did not show gender separation by preference (Table 6).
Gender differences in the description of the partner's own and desired characteristics. Northern region. Significant differences were found when the ad authors described their own portraits. Girls more often described their appearance, physique, and skin color, while boys more often emphasized the fact of their good employment (Table 7).
Representatives of both sexes were equal in their assessment of their intellectual abilities, economic performance, level of education, income, early marriage, family information, commitment to food, and attitude to dowry (Table 7).
Significant gender differences were found in a number of characteristics of a potential partner (Table 8). Body type, skin color, level of education,
page 54
Table 5
Gender differences in the significance of individual characteristics of the ad author's portrait based on materials from the northern region of India
Characteristic
Men
Women
Student's t-test
St. sv.
R
N
Wed.
St.off
M
N
Wed.
St.off
M
Age
358
28.76
2.39
28.00
339
27.02
3.10
27.00
8.34
695
.000
Height
356
172.65
8.60
174.00
335
161.07
6.10
162.00
20.30
689
.000
Appearance
361
0.31
0.46
0.00
339
0.51
0.50
0.00
-5.66
698
.000
Intelligence
361
0.06
0.24
0.00
339
0.13
0.37
0.00
-2.91
698
.004
Body type
361
0.00
0.00
0.00
339
0.28
0.45
0.00
-11.84
698
.000
Skin color
361
0.09
0.28
0.00
339
0.51
0.50
1.00
-13.43
698
.000
Domovity
361
0.00
0.00
0.00
339
0.08
0.28
0.00
-5.69
698
.000
Education level
205
2.78
0.48
3.00
252
2.84
0.52
3.00
-1.40
447
.163
Employment rate
361
0.94
0.24
1.00
339
0.66
0.47
1.00
9.89
698
.000
Wealth level
110
5.27
3.63
4.66
25
3.73
2.03
3.60
2.88
64.05
.005
Manglik*
29
1.17
0.38
1.00
35
1.14
0.36
1.00
0.32
57.79
.752
Early marriage
361
0.07
0.25
0.00
339
0.15
0.39
0.00
-3.57
698
.000
Family Information
361
0.27
0.44
0.00
339
0.35
0.48
0.00
-2.28
698
.023
Commitment in food
361
0.02
0.16
0.00
339
0.02
0.15
0.00
.114
697.08
.909
Dowry
361
0.02
0.15
0.00
339
0.01
0.08
0.00
1.81
698
.070
Symbols: N - number of respondents who answered this question; Wed. - average value; St. deviation - standard deviation; M-median; t-Student's criterion - t-Student's criterion for independent samples; P - significance level; St. sv. - degree of freedom.
* The term "manglik" is used in Vedic astrology and refers to a person who has a special way of placing the planet Mars in the horoscope [Mangal Dosha]. It is believed that a manglick person is accompanied by failure in marriage, so this factor is of serious importance. However, if there is a marriage alliance between two mangliks, then the negative effect loses its force [Mangal Dosha // http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manglik].
page 55
Table 6
Gender differences in the significance of individual characteristics of a potential partner based on the materials of the northern region of India
Characteristic
Men
Women
Student's t-test
St. sv.
R
N
Wed.
St.off
M
N
Wed.
St.off
M
Appearance
185
1.09
0.46
1.00
7
1.71
0.49
2.00
-3.35
6.41
.014
Intelligence
29
2.00
1.00
2.00
1
1.00
-
1.00
0.98
28
.334
Body type
361
0.12
0.32
0.00
339
0.00
0.00
0.00
6.76
698
.000
Height
361
0.21
0.40
0.00
339
0.01
0.12
0.00
8.32
698
.000
Skin color
361
0.15
0.35
0.00
339
0.01
0.09
0.00
6.94
698
.000
Education
246
1.57
1.15
1.00
109
3.56
2.48
4.00
-10.37
353
.000
Employment rate
361
0.09
0.28
0.00
339
0.01
0.11
0.00
4.67
698
.000
Well arranged
361
0.00
0.00
0.00
339
0.09
0.29
0.00
-6.13
698
.000
Domovity
361
0.08
0.27
0.00
339
0.00
0.00
0.00
5.33
698
.000
Caste
67
1.37
0.49
1.00
52
1.23
0.43
1.00
1.67
117
.098
Commitment in food
361
0.02
0.15
0.00
339
0.02
0.13
0.00
0.42
696.47
.673
Family Information
361
0.13
0.34
0.00
339
0.04
0.21
0.00
4.04
698
.000
Manglik
7
1.29
0.49
1.00
11
1.09
0.30
1.00
1.05
16
.307
page 56
Table 7
Gender differences in the significance of individual characteristics of the ad author's portrait based on materials from the southern region of India
Characteristic
Men
Women
Student's t-test
St. sv.
R
N
Wed.
St.off
M
N
Wed.
St.off
M
Age
199
29.59
3.88
29.00
201
26.61
3.35
26.00
8.25
398
.000
Height
173
171.95
6.47
172.00
180
160.31
6.31
160.00
17.11
351
.000
Appearance
199
0.10
0.29
.00
201
0.17
0.38
0.00
-2.18
398
.030
Intelligence
199
0.02
0.12
0.00
201
0.04
0.31
0.00
-1.04
398
.300
Body type
199
0.01
0.07
0.00
201
0.09
0.29
0.00
-4.19
398
.000
Skin color
199
0.15
0.35
0.00
201
0.50
0.50
0.00
-8.10
398
.000
Domovity
199
0.00
0.00
0.00
200
0.01
0.10
0.00
-1.41
397
.158
Education level
163
2.52
0.51
3.00
177
2.53
0.58
2.00
-.06
334
.950
Employment rate
199
0.96
0.20
1.00
201
0.70
0.46
1.00
7.31
398
.000
Wealth level
71
9.51
32.19
4.80
34
4.16
3.65
2.70
1.38
73,69
.171
Early marriage
199
0.08
0.38
0.00
201
0.03
0.17
0.00
1.57
398
.118
Family Information
199
0.09
0.29
0.00
201
0.10
0.31
0.00
-.472
397
.637
Commitment in food
199
0.02
0.12
0.00
201
0.01
0.07
0.00
1.01
398
.311
Dowry
199
0.02
0.12
0.00
201
0,00
0.00
0.00
1.75
398
.081
Symbols: N - number of respondents who answered this question; Wed. - average value; St. deviation - standard deviation; M-median; t-Student's criterion - t-Student's criterion for independent samples; P - significance level; St. sv. - degree of freedom.
page 57
Table 8
Gender differences in the significance of individual characteristics of a potential partner based on the materials of the southern region of India
Characteristic
Men
Women
Student's t-test
St. sv.
R
N
Wed.
St.off
M
N
Wed.
St.off
M
Appearance
47
2.66
0.76
3.00
3
2.33
0.58
2.00
0.93
2.47
.435
Intelligence
2
1.00
0.00
1.00
1
1.00
1.00
Body type
199
0.04
0.18
0.00
201
0.00
0.00
0.00
2.70
398
.007
Height
199
0.02
0.12
0.00
201
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.46
381
.646
Skin color
199
0.21
0.41
0.00
201
0.00
0.00
0.00
6.40
398
.000
Education
129
2.21
1.48
1.00
117
1.48
1.14
1.00
4.31
244
.000
Employment rate
199
0.14
0.36
0.00
201
0.26
0.44
0.00
-3.04
398
.003
Well arranged
199
0.01
0.10
0.00
201
0.08
0.28
0.00
-3.55
398
.000
Domovity
199
0.04
0.18
0.00
201
0.01
0.07
0.00
2.16
398
.031
Caste
53
1.26
0.45
1.00
51
1.29
0.46
1.00
-0.34
101
.737
Commitment in food
199
0.02
0.12
0.00
201
0.01
0.07
0.00
1.01
398
.311
Family Information
199
0.16
0.38
0.00
201
0.14
0.38
0.00
.454
395
.650
Religious affiliation
15
1.00
0.00
1.00
14
1.07
0.27
1.00
-1.04
27
.309
Symbols: N - number of respondents who answered this question; Wed. - average value; St. off. -standard deviation; M-median; t-Student's criterion - t-Student's criterion for independent samples; P - significance level; St. sv. - degree of freedom.
page 58
the economy of the future spouse was more important for the young man. The girls were interested in employment and financial well-being (characteristic: "well-settled") of the groom.
There were no differences between boys and girls in assessing the significance of appearance, height, caste, taste preferences, information about the family and religious views of a potential partner (Table 8). Based on the quantitative ratio of indications (47 for boys and 3 for girls) Despite the fact that there are no significant differences between the two groups, despite the fact that their appearance in ads is more important for males, we can conclude that this characteristic is more important for males.
discussion
As mentioned earlier, in India, in most cases, parents choose a marriage partner for their children. This is also reflected in ads about finding a bride or groom. However, it is not always possible to determine exactly whether parents or children are the authors of the text. In a study on a similar topic, Vreede - De Stuers concludes that parents and children, when applying, are guided by similar parameters of the intended partner (Vreede-De Stuers, 1969). If this is the case, then the issue of authorship of ad texts is no longer relevant.
As the results of our study show, there are differences in the significance of certain parameters of the desired partners for men and women. Initially, we took into account the specifics of the regional division of India into northern and southern parts. Therefore, at the next stage, we conducted a comparative analysis of significant differences in the description of both their image and potential partner between representatives of the north and south of the country.
Gender differences were identified in both regions based on the description of the author's physical characteristics. Girls paid more attention to describing their appearance, body type, and skin color (Tables 5, 7). It should be noted that when expressing preferences for a future spouse in ad texts, young men often indicated their appearance characteristics, body type, and having a lighter skin tone (Tables 6, 8). This is probably due to the greater significance of the physical characteristics of the partner for men than for women. In fact, a girl's physical performance reflects her reproductive qualities. When getting married, men want to get the most reliable information about the childbearing abilities of the future spouse.
In the context of Indian everyday life, attention to appearance does not just increase: the desire to meet the European standard of beauty increases. Such trends are promoted by Bollywood movies and TV shows, glossy print publications, and various advertising products. An illustrative example is given by E. Yu. Vanina [Vanina, 2008, p.25], transmitting a conversation with the editor of a literary magazine, the mother of a little girl. The mother is concerned about her daughter's passion for a toy-a Barbie doll. A woman complains that for a girl the ideal is the image of a white-skinned blonde, which completely contradicts the Indian ideas of beauty.
An important parameter in choosing a potential partner is age. Describing themselves, this indicator was noted by almost all applicants in the northern and southern regions of India. There are practically no differences in the age distribution between the representatives of the two regions. The age at which young people are most active in placing their marriage ads coincides with the reproductive period of a person who wants to find a permanent partner and create a full-fledged family with him in the future [Butovskaya, 2004(2)]. In our sample, boys in Northern India are more likely to use this method of finding a partner in the age group from 26 to 30 years, and girls - from 23 to 30 years. The southern states have the highest number of applications
page 59
Table 9
Age of marriage in India*
Age group
Married people
Total number
Men
Women
all
468593016
231820399
236772617
under 10 years of age
10316817
3232370
7084447
10-11 years old
6484532
1537921
4946611
12-13 years old
12379134
2055784
10323350
14-15 years old
39290670
6699267
32591403
16-17 years old
59299857
11367486
47932371
18-19 years old
93831308
31140229
62691079
20-21 years old
94130733
57322317
36808416
22-23 years old
48949278
35154594
13794684
24-25 years old
42006017
34194839
7811178
26-27 years old
17757978
14917536
2840442
28-29 years old
12776753
11196979
1579774
30-31 years old
9588115
8707948
880167
32-33 years old
3435584
3137805
297779
34+
4896736
4396676
500060
You didn't specify it
13449504
6758648
6690856
* Data obtained from the 2001 Census of India website. [www.censusindia.gov.in].
men from the 25 - to 32-year-old age group applied, while 22-to 29-year-olds were the most proactive among women.
According to the 2001 Indian Census, most young men were married before the age of 25, while girls were married before the age of 21. Comparing with the age of authors, in which they most actively apply to newspapers, we can draw the following conclusion. Indians are more likely to resort to marriage announcements after the age at which boys and girls are more likely to marry has passed. From Table 9, it is clear that the peak of marriage among young men is between 20 and 21 years, and for girls-between 18 and 19 years. These data correspond to the age of marriage established by the Law on Restriction of Early Marriages in 1978 - for boys from 21 years old, for girls from 18 years old [Yurlova, 2005, p. 374; Shaumyan, 2005, p. 374]. However, census data indicate that the lower age limit is well beyond the legal age of marriage. You should pay special attention to the "less than 10" age group. This indicates that the institution of early marriage continues to function in India. Although this custom was also banned by a legislative act in 1978 (this law was mentioned above), according to official estimates, it turns out that almost 3.6% of all marriages performed in the country are early (Table 9).
The data obtained in the course of our study also reflect the situation with early marriages and confirm the information about the higher prevalence of this institution in Northern India than in Southern India (Albedil, 2005, p.376). Thus, 6.6% of boys and 13.6% of girls in the northern region, as opposed to 0.5% of men and 3% of applicants in the southern region, indicated that they had been married early in the past (Tables 1, 3).
We found significant regional differences in the significance of the "intellectual abilities" indicator within each gender group
page 60
Table 10
Significant differences between representatives of the northern and southern regions in the parameter "intellectual abilities" in the description of their own portrait
Author's gender
Northern region
Southern region
Student's t-test
R
N
Wed.
St.off
N
Wed.
St.off
Young men
361
0.06
0.24
199
0.02
0.12
2.64
.009
Girls
339
0.13
0.36
201
0.04
0.31
2.92
.004
Symbols: N - number of respondents who answered this question; Wed. - average value; St. off. - standard deviation; t-Student's criterion -t-Student's criterion for independent samples; P - significance level.
(Table 10). Boys and girls in the northern states used this characteristic more often when describing themselves, in contrast to the southern states. We assume that for representatives of the northern region, the indicator "intellectual abilities" is equivalent to the parameter "level of education", which is determined in this case.
Representatives of both regions of the country agreed on the need to indicate the level of education of the ad author himself, but differed in the requirements for this parameter in relation to the future partner. Women in both the northern and southern regions expressed greater interest in an educated spouse than men (Tables 6, 8).
It would be appropriate to say here about the level of income and employment of applicants. We have identified significant regional differences. In the northern states, authors were more likely to indicate their level of annual income than in the southern states, while the average indicator of this parameter is higher in the south of the country. When specifying the preferred characteristics of a potential partner, the "wealth"parameter became the equivalent of the income level. There were no regional differences as opposed to gender differences in this quality. Girls in both districts expressed a desire to have a wealthy spouse, which is also consistent with the predictions of the theory of parental contribution and reproductive success. The mother makes a significantly greater energy contribution to the child's bearing and feeding, while the father's contribution is determined mainly by the economic resources that he can provide to the offspring [Butovskaya, 2004(1), p. 326]. These considerations are also consistent with the gender differences observed in our study in terms of employment. This parameter turned out to be equally significant in the descriptions of their own portraits by young men of both regions, while girls paid less attention to this characteristic. Meanwhile, this indicator can be regarded as a direct reflection of the partner's ability to provide the family with "resources", i.e., the means to support life, ensure the survival and prosperity of the family, and guarantee stability and future prosperity of children.
There were significant discrepancies between representatives of the two regions in clarifying information about their family when describing their own characteristics. It turned out that it was more important for applicants in the northern states to provide such information (Table 11). Among the requirements for a future partner, there are no differences between young men from different regions, but representatives of the south of the country more often wanted to get a partner from a good family (Table 11). This can be explained by the fact that the term "good family" refers to the status of the family, which also indicates its prosperity.
page 61
Table 11
Significant differences in the"family information" indicator
Description
Author's gender
Northern region
Southern region
Student's t-test
R
N
Wed.
St.off
N
Wed.
St.off
Own name
Young men
361
0.27
0.44
199
0.09
0.29
5.13
.000
Girls
339
0.35
0.48
201
0.10
0.31
6.46
.000
A potential partner
Young men
361
0.13
0.34
199
0.09
0.27
1.43
.155
Girls
339
0.04
0.21
201
0.14
0.35
-4.02
.000
Symbols: N - number of respondents who answered this question; Wed. - average value; St. off. - standard deviation; t-Student's criterion -t-Student's criterion for independent samples; P - significance level.
The material affluence factor was the most significant for our sample when men describe themselves and women describe their partners. This can be explained primarily by the fact that a woman subconsciously looks for support, reliability and a guarantee of a secure future for herself and her children in a man, and these parameters can be combined into a requirement for the material stability of a man. In order to interest "such a" groom, a woman describes her own physical parameters in the most detailed and attractive way possible, demonstrating, according to our data, a significant difference in the description of her own appearance by men and women. Men, in turn, guaranteeing financial security to a woman, require the most attractive appearance and certainly a good figure. Identical data on the significance of such characteristics as material status were obtained in Great Britain, Poland, the USA, Russia, and Japan (Butovskaya, 2004 (1); Oda, 2001; Pawlowski and Koziel, 2002; Waynforth and Dunbar, 1995; Wiederman, 1993).
MARRIAGE ANNOUNCEMENTS 20 YEARS LATER
Indologist A. A. Gendin published in 1986 an article "Caste and marriage in South India", which presents data on marriage announcements from the South Indian newspaper"The Hindu".
A comparative analysis of our materials on South India and the data of A. A. Gendin indicates an expansion of the age range of people submitting ads. If A. A. Gendin's age of applicants ranged from 26 to 30 years [Gendin, 1986, p. 35], then our data slightly extend this range: from 22 to 32 years.
As for the level of education, we have obtained the following results. 81.9% of men have a bachelor's, master's or advanced degree. At the same time, 18.1% of the authors did not indicate their education; 88.1% of women noted the same indicator (11.9% did not indicate it) (Table 3). The sample of A. A. Gendin is characterized by a lower level of education of applicants: only 58.6% of men and 66.0% of women had a bachelor's degree or higher [Gendin, 1986, p. 36]. It is noteworthy that there is an imbalance between male and female education. The increase in female literacy is changing some of the attitudes of Indian society. In particular, the increasing level of female education is associated with an increase in the age at which girls enter into a marriage union. On average, the southern region of the country has a higher age of marriage than the northern part of India. This is explained in more detail
page 62
high female independence and independence. South Indian women are more active in the workplace and more progressive in using contraceptives and seeking medical care (Dyson and Moore, 1983). In addition, the presence of education in the mother contributes to the reduction of infanticide [Bourne and Walker, 1991]. Female infanticide in modern India has become catastrophic. With the development of medicine, in particular with the possibility of determining the sex of an unborn child, the number of abortions based on gender has increased. Although the country's Government banned determining a child's sex during fetal development in 1996, there are a large number of illegal mobile stations that provide services of this kind. According to a UNICEF report, every year in India, parents kill from 40 to 50 million women of the fairer sex [Semenenko]. Hence the significant difference in the gender ratio. According to the 2001 Census of India, there are 933 women per 1000 males (Census Data, 2001). According to these indicators, the imbalance in the matrimonial market becomes obvious.
Studies confirm the correlation between the level of education and childbearing. Fertility is lower where economic and social conditions are more favorable for women, particularly in South India (Malhotra et al., 1995).
Regarding the preferences in the level of education of a potential marriage partner, A. A. Gendin makes the following conclusion:" men are much more interested in the high educational, rather than material, level of potential chosen women " [Gendin, 1986, p.39]. Our data not only confirm this conclusion, but also make significant additions: the indicator of education of the future spouse is more important for girls than for young people (Table 8).
The data obtained in two studies of marriage ads in South India have similar indicators and at the request of a horoscope from a potential partner. In the study of A. A. Gendin, 29.1% of men and 26.3% of women rely on horoscopes, and in our work - 32.2% and 28.2%, respectively (Table 3). This suggests that the importance of astrology in the life of modern Indian society in the southern region does not lose its position. According to our data, in the north of India, even more young men (39.3%) and girls (28.6%) applied for the horoscope of a potential spouse (Table 1).
A. A. Gendin notes that among the ad texts he studied, 96.8% of men and 98.1% of women indicated their caste affiliation, and only 2.5% of the total number of applications preferred not to mention this characteristic [Gendin, 1986, p. 37]. Our data indicate a progressive trend: 89.4% of young men attributed themselves to a particular caste group and 85.1% to girls (Table 3). It is obvious that in 2007-2008, caste affiliation becomes less significant when describing the author's own characteristics compared to 1986.
When comparing definitions of caste affiliation, there are also discrepancies. For example, in the ads considered in our work, the authors, indicating their belonging to the Brahmin caste, wrote only "Brahmin", in some cases supplemented the geographical reference ("Brahmin from Kerala"), while A. A. Gendin says in his work that Brahmin applicants use a more fractional characteristic of their gender. caste status.
As for the author's desire to have a partner from the same caste, the data of both studies have both differences and similarities. A. A. Gendin notes in some detail the requirements for the caste belonging of a potential partner among the groups of Brahmins and non-Brahmins. He describes several detailed variants of such requests:" for a Nair girl, we are looking for a groom from the following castes: Nair, Menon, Pillai, Nambiar", etc. [Gendin, 1986, p. 40]. There are no such examples among the sample of our ads. Rather, on the contrary, the authors are very brief in
page 63
in expressing their preference for relative caste status, the only thing they indicate (19.6% of boys and 17.9% of girls) is that the partner is "from the same caste", sometimes adding: "the subcast is not important". There is a second variant, which A. A. Gendin also mentions, when applicants say that caste does not matter to them at all (Table 4). Here we can trace the influence of radical, progressive trends on the views of modern Indians in the field of family and marriage relations. However, the percentage of those who did not indicate the desired caste status of the future spouse is high - 73.4% of boys and 74.6% of girls. Similar attitudes in both studies can be traced in representatives of the group of former "untouchables": they do not make caste requirements for the future spouse.
In 1955, the Hindu Marriage Act was passed. This normative act allows the conclusion of inter-caste, inter-confessional marriages. In order to encourage the elimination of caste barriers in matrimonial affairs, in 2006 the Government decided to pay compensation for marriages concluded between representatives of different caste groups. The results of this campaign are reflected in the January 2007 issue of the Hindustan Times [Hindustan Times, 2007]. The newspaper publishes the results of a public opinion poll on this decision: 46% of respondents said that they would not marry a representative of a different caste under any circumstances; 32% of respondents are ready to enter into a marriage relationship with a representative of another caste; 22% of people consider such a marriage potentially possible [ibid.]. To the question, " Would you marry someone of a lower caste than your own?", the answers were roughly the same. A categorical "no" was said by 50% of respondents, 27% answered positively, and 23% could not clearly express their point of view on this issue [ibid.]. It should be noted that in recent years, cases of marriage between representatives of higher castes and scheduled (lower) castes for selfish purposes have become more frequent. The fact is that scheduled castes have quotas for admission to higher educational institutions, and they reserve places in political authorities and jobs. So, if a girl is married to a representative of lower castes, she loses her status and belongs to the husband's caste, which theoretically entitles her to benefits. However, in this case, the girl begins to compete with the legitimate recipient of the reserved seat. The public, especially the lower castes, has expressed dissatisfaction with such cases. They claim that a girl who changes her status through a marriage ceremony does not become a full-fledged representative of her husband's caste and cannot enjoy undeserved benefits. The Supreme Court of India stands on the side of the lower castes and reserves the right to allocate quotas to the representatives of this caste (Mahapatra, 2005).
A. A. Gendin concludes that " caste still has a very strong impact on the public consciousness and social practice of Indians. However, the tendency to gradually undermine its positions is obvious" [Gendin, 1986, p. 42].
Our study was long-term in relation to the work of A. A. Gendin and suggests that the caste system continues to maintain its position in the XXI century. Today, we are witnessing an increase in the processes of reducing the importance of caste status when choosing a marriage partner. Ad authors pay less attention to the characteristics of their caste affiliation, the description of the requirement for this status is simplified to a simple indication "from the same caste", and there are more indifferent applicants to this indicator. But this does not mean that "caste" has lost its position in Indian society when choosing a marriage partner.
page 64
conclusion
The results of our study suggest that in Indian society, men and women practice universal sexual strategies when choosing a marriage partner and do not differ in these characteristics from other industrial societies [Butovskaya and Smirnov, 2003; Buss and Schmitt, 1993; Butovskaya, Dronova, and Mihandzho, 2009]. Specific cultural features are introduced by additional criteria for evaluating a prospective candidate: caste affiliation, compatibility of horoscopes, etc.
We have established significant differences between men and women in the assessment of a number of characteristics of a potential marriage partner. Young men give more preference to the appearance, build, height, skin tone, economy of the partner. For girls, the following characteristics of the future spouse are more important: employment, level of education, and well-being. The data obtained confirm the predictions of the theories of reproductive success and parental contribution proposed by D. Simons and R. Travers: gender differences in mating partner selection strategies are clearly traced in our materials and correspond to the predictions of the evolutionary theory [Trivers, 1972; Symons, 1979].
The materials of this study indicate that today the Indian society is in the process of transformation: it has not yet finally decided on the degree of significance of caste in choosing a marriage partner. A comparative analysis of our study with the work of A. A. Gendin [Gendin, 1986] revealed a continuing trend towards a decrease in the significance of the caste status indicator. Among the applicants, there are individuals for whom the caste factor is not in any way important for marriage. Thus, we do not refute hypothesis 3, but we do not fully confirm it either.
Our data confirm hypothesis 4. Men and women in both regions use the same criteria when choosing their future spouse. Young men of the north and south of India are more interested in the physical characteristics of the bride, and girls of the northern and southern regions of the country are concerned about the financial situation of a possible marriage partner.
Summing up, it should be said that marriage ads are a modern adaptation of traditional means of finding a permanent partner. The authors of applications do not represent a special progressive category of people who seek to ignore the established norms of society. In general, the texts of marriage announcements reflect the value system of the status group to which the applicant belongs.
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