A. P. DEREVYANKO
Institute of Archeology and Ethnography SB RAS

17 Akademika Lavrentieva Ave., Novosibirsk, 630090, Russia

E-mail: derev@archaeology.nsc.ru

Introduction

In the last three decades, Early Paleolithic sites have been discovered in various regions of Africa and Eurasia, characterized by a predominance of small products. These microindustrial complexes are dated in a wide chronological range-from 2.3 million to 300 thousand years. Their appearance is still a mystery. Microindustry could have appeared on such a vast territory in the course of migration processes and (or) independently as a result of changes in the adaptation strategies of ancient man to changing environmental conditions, raw materials and other factors that determine his culture, the main content and appearance of industrial complexes. Based on the accumulated facts to date, we will consider the hypothesis of the spread of microindustry in the process of migration of archanthropes from Africa in the pre-Assyrian period. In our opinion, the settlement of Eurasia was due to two migration waves of ancient human populations: one is associated with the carriers of the traditions of the Odduvai industry, the other with the microindustry.

The birth of the microlytic industry

The appearance of microlytic technology refers to the very initial stage of the tool activity of ancient Homo. The most comprehensive classification of early industry was proposed by M. Leakey (1971). Based on a detailed analysis of the industry from layers I and II of Olduvai, she created a detailed typological classification of all categories of stone tools, which is still considered classical today. A study in the Awash River basin (North-East Africa) of sites older than 2 million years revealed an industry earlier than Olduvai I, which differs significantly from the Olduvai I industry in terms of the types of stone tools and the nature of primary processing. The study of several Omo localities (North-East Africa) revealed the dominance of very small fragments, as well as types that have no analogues in Olduvai, and allowed us to single out a special Shungur facies (Chavaillon, 1970). It has been suggested that all stone technologies older than 2 million years belong to hominids who have not yet mastered the basic principles of splitting, and that it is impossible to distinguish features in the pre-Duduvai industry by constant and consistent technological methods (Roche, 1989, 1996). According to M. Kibunjia (1994), the localities are older than 2 million years. The hominids ' poor knowledge of the properties and quality of raw materials, as well as their poor mastery of stone splitting techniques, is reflected in the Western Turkana region (Omo). The researcher believes that in parallel with the Shungur facies, there was another tradition in Western Turkana, which he called the Nachukui industry. According to some researchers, the choice of raw materials, methods and techniques of stone processing already at the initial stage of tool activity differed from the classical Olduvai industry.

Collections from locations in the river basin. OMOs were thoroughly analyzed by Ignesio de la

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Torre (2004). The Late Pliocene-Early Pleistocene localities of one of the earliest archanthropic groups are located in Ethiopia on the west bank of the Omo. Here, as a result of tectonic processes and subsequent erosion, thick sedimentary strata were formed; they are divided into four formations: mursi, nkalabong, usno, and shungura. The Shungura formation, formed 3.6-1.3 million years AGO and partially overlying the Usno formation, stretches from north to south for 60 km and from west to east for 7 km. A formation with a maximum thickness of approx. 1 thousand m was divided into 13 sections (Howell, Haesaerts, Heinzelin, 1987), marked with letters from bottom to top from A to L. In the Shungura formation in sections B and C, approx. 220 hominid remains: in section C-Australopithecus aethiopicus, in section G-Australopithecus boisei and Homo sapiens. [Suwa, White, Howell, 1996]. Excavations in the Omo basin were carried out by a French expedition led by D. Chavaillon (1977). As it was established in the course of research, the stone materials of localities 71 and 84 from section E are not the product of hominid labor - they are the result of natural processes."...The absence of nuclei, flakes, and other clear evidence of cleavage does not allow Omo-84 to be classified as archaeological sites, and thus it is impossible to speak of signs of human activity in section E, " Ignesio de la Torre noted (Torre, 2004, p.442).

Section F with a thickness of approx. 35 m includes four to five sedimentary horizons covering tuff F, dated to 2.34 ± 0.04 Ma. Four sites with stone tools were found in the lower part of the F1 sedimentary rocks and one in the upper part, F3. Ignesio de la Torre examines in detail the Omo-57 sites, the F1 horizon, and the Omo-57 site. Omo-123, horizon F3. At the Omo-57 site, they identified seven nuclei with an average size of 37.4 mm, 45 whole flakes, including those with retouching traces, with an average size of 24.7 mm, 81 fragments of flakes with an average size of 20.9 mm, 45 angular fragments with an average size of 23.7 mm, and 25 angular fragments with a size slightly larger than 10 mm. The blanks used as nuclei were angular fragments of quartz, in which natural surfaces were used as impact platforms. On the blanks of small sizes (30-40 mm) there are traces of three or four removals. Manufacturers selected suitable natural surfaces and removed a limited number of flakes from them, as long as the angle did not prevent splitting [Ibid, p. 445].

More artifacts were found at the Omo-123 site than at Omo-57 - 1,314 copies. Ignesio de la Torre highlights objects found in situ and on the surface. On whole flakes and fragments (397 specimens), the impact platform is usually non-faceted (90.9 %). Flakes demonstrate the use of one impact site (95 %), the presence of two sites (3%), and indicate some rotation of the nucleus (2%). At this location, as well as at Omo-57, three or four flakes were sequentially removed from the nuclei using a natural surface in one direction. Ignesio de la Torre identified two nuclei that were split using the bipolar method. The size of flakes and angular fragments generally reached 10-30 mm.

Based on the study of nuclei from two locations, Ignesio de la Torre reconstructs three technological strategies. For 16 nuclei with a size of 30 - 40 mm, mainly made of quartz, the method of direct impact with a bump was used; any natural surface was used to remove three or four flakes. The impact pad did not re-form as the core was depleted. The two nuclei demonstrate a bipolar cleavage strategy: a small core was reinforced (installed) on an anvil, and removal was performed with the help of a bump. There are signs of crushing at the proximal and distal ends. The two nuclei reflect a bifacial cleavage strategy. These nuclei are larger than others and probably demonstrate the first experience of preparing a shock pad. When splitting, the shell structure of the workpiece was taken into account. Quartz was brought to the parking lot from far away.

We present Ignesio de la Torre's conclusions in detail, as many of them seem convincing to us. In addition, the discussion of this researcher's article on the pages of the journal "Current Anthropology" indicates that experts generally support his main ideas.

The most important conclusion from this review is that one of the earliest cultures in Africa has a pronounced microlytic character. All known localities, which are 2.5 - 2.2 million years old, are located in the northern part of the Great African Rift and are concentrated in three areas-the middle course of the Awash (Bowri, Kada Gona and Hadar), as well as the basins of Lake Turkana (Omo and Lakalaley) and Victoria (Canyera). In all these locations, the microlytic nature of the industry, which differs from the technocomplexes of classical olduvai, is more or less evident.

S. Semaw comes to a different conclusion based on the study of the oldest industry in the Kada Gona River basin (Semaw, 2000). He believes that 2.6-1.5 million years of life.

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In East Africa, there were no local cultural variations in the Olduvai industry. Let's look at this problem in more detail.

Comprehensive studies in 1992-1994 in the Kada Gona basin revealed 16 localities, where more than 3 thousand artifacts were found in situ and on the surface. According to radioisotope dating (40Ar/39Ar) and magnetostratigraphy, these finds date back to 2.6 and 2.5 million years ago. The most informative locations are Vostochnaya Gona-10 (EG 10) and Vostochnaya Gona-12 (EG 12).

EG 10 is located 5-7 km above the confluence of the Kada Gona and Avash rivers. Here, 1,549 artefacts were collected on the surface and 667 artefacts were discovered on an area of 13 m2 during excavations. Two culture-containing horizons separated by a sterile 40 cm thick layer were recorded at the site, which indicates that this territory was repopulated by humans. The thickness of each culture-containing horizon is up to 10 cm. The saturation of the horizons with finds that underwent minimal displacement was significant.

EG 12 is located on the Aibaigao Dora River, which flows into the Kada Gona 300 m from EG 10. 309 artefacts were found on the surface, and 444 in situ artifacts were found in the 8 m2 excavation. The geomorphological situation and sedimentation at this location were the same as at EG 10.

31 nuclei were found at the EG10 locality and 12 at the EG12 locality. Primary cleavage is mainly associated with unifacial and bifacial methods. Among the nuclei, well-formed discoid nuclei can be distinguished. The craftsmen were well aware of the crystal structure of the stone (mainly trachyte) and had experience in splitting (they took into account the shell-like features of the material). Some bifacial nuclei are made of elongated pebbles and can be called protobifaces [Ibid, p. 1205]. The artefacts demonstrate well-established rock splitting skills [Ibid, p. 1206]. Individual nuclei were largely depleted by previous withdrawals. The choppers found at these localities, side and end choppers, as well as unifacial choppers, could also be used as nuclei.

Among the small artifacts, whole and broken flakes, worked nuclei, and angular fragments are highlighted. Most flakes have a well-diagnosed impact pad and impact bump. The flakes were chipped mainly from the pebbly surface of the nucleolus; they do not have facetted areas; the dorsal surface is devoid of a gall crust and bears negatives of previous images, which indicates repeated sequential chipping of flakes from the nuclei. The dimensions of whole flakes at the EG 10 location are from 10 to 85 mm, and at the EG 12 location - from 10 to 128 mm.

From the point of view of primary splitting technology, the Kada Gona industry is more advanced than the Omo industry, although the former is more than 200 thousand years older. S. Semav considers the entire technology and typology of Kada Gona within the framework of the Olduvai industrial tradition. At the same time, the Omo locality is assigned to the Shungura facies, and the locales-1 and - 2C localities are assigned to the Nachukui facies (Kibunjia, 1994). It is hardly legitimate to explain the differences in industries only by the different quality of raw materials. V. N. Gladilin and V. I. Sitlivy [1990] drew attention to the possibility of identifying local variants at the earliest stage of human tool activity in Africa.

The most important question is who was the creator of the most ancient industry.

In East Africa, Omo and West Turkana have been found dating from ca. 2.5 Ma BP remains of the massive Australopithecus aethiopicus (Howell, Haesaerts, and Heinzelin, 1987), and the gracile Australopithecus garhi (Asfaw et al., 1992) in the Middle Avash basin in the Bowri Formation. Their common ancestor, according to some anthropologists, was Australopithecus afarensis. A human upper jaw (long known under the code AL 666 - 1) was found in Hadar, which, by universal recognition, belonged to Homo. Its date is 2.33 million years ago. In Omo, the remains of Australopithecus boisei and Homo sapiens were found in section G. The species identity of AL 666-1 has not been determined for a long time; in the literature, this find is associated with Homo sapiens, i.e., a person of unknown species (Zubov, 2004). Currently, both finds are assigned to the species Homo habilis (Kimbel, Johanson, and Rak, 1997). It is very likely that the stone tools found in Omo, Hadar, and Lokalalei were made by a member of Homo habilis. According to S. Semaw, stone tools in the Kadagon could belong to Australopithecus garhi (Semaw, 2000). Wood suggests that the artefacts identified in the Afar area may have been manufactured and used by Australopithecus boisei (Wood and Collard, 1997).

The question of the bearers of the traditions of making the earliest tools is far from being solved. According to a number of anthropologists and archaeologists, stone tools could have been made by representatives of some species of Australopithecus and early Homo. As experiments have shown, chimpanzees could get flakes when cracking nuts on an anvil, but

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they never used flakes as tools. The late Australopithecines (aethiopicus, garhi, boisei) may well have obtained flakes in various ways and used them for various types of work. Given this, it is wrong to consider all the early types of industry as the essence of the development of one line of industry (Odduvai) for 2.5-1.5 million years. The appearance of local variants of early plants due to the isolation of the groups of early Homo and late Australopithecines was not only possible, but also inevitable. Therefore, the allocation of pre-Ashelian facies or industry is quite justified.

Returning to the problem of the presence of microindustry in localities dating back 2.3 million years, Ignacio de la Torre's very important observation should be emphasized: flakes from quartz (21.3 mm - Omo-123; 24.3 mm - Omo-57), as well as from less used raw materials - siliceous limestone and basalt are close in average maximum parameters [Torre, 2004].

Data on the existence of a 2.3 million-year-old microindustry in East Africa suggest that the first migrants from Africa (Homo ergasterectus) were carriers not only of the Odduvai tradition, as we imagined [Derevyanko, 2001, 2003, 2004, 2005], but also the traditions of the microindustry. This is supported by ancient sites with microindustry identified in Eurasia.

Early Paleolithic sites with a microlytic industry are known in Europe and Asia. But until recently, they were considered in isolation; experts gave a variety of explanations for this phenomenon. Very remote from each other in space and time (from 1 million to 300 thousand years), they were not perceived as some kind of global cultural and historical phenomenon; their specificity was mainly explained by special adaptation strategies, the presence of a certain quality of raw materials, etc. Perhaps for the first time, Novosibirsk archaeologists, together with foreign specialists, tried to consider this problem from the point of view of global migration processes (Derevianko et al., 1998; Derevyanko, Petrin, and Taimagambetov, 2000; Early Paleolithic microindustrial complexes..., 2000). It was suggested that this industry originated in the east of Eurasia (the territory of China)and spread to the west. Recently discovered in Israel and Dagestan, as well as early Paleolithic sites with microindustry that have long been known in Europe, allow us to link the penetration of microindustry from Africa to Eurasia with one of the two oldest human migrations in the pre-Assyrian period.

Middle East

It is in this context that the materials of excavations at the Bizat Rukhama site in Israel, conducted in 1996 by A. Ronen and Ya. M.Burdukevich (Ronen et al., 1998), allow us to consider this problem. Bizat Ruham is located on the eastern edge of the southern coastal plain near the Judean Mountains [Ibid]. This is the widest coastal plain in Israel. Quaternary deposits here reach a height of 200 m above sea level. m. The eastern boundary of the Khamr soils, reddish sandy loams of the Quaternary period, runs along this site. To the east of the territory of Kibbutz Rukhama, the relief is characterized by deeply cutting through Quaternary deposits with gullies of erosive origin and depressions. At a distance of about 12 m from the surface, a parking lot was found in one of the deep ravines. Archaeological finds were found in layer C1 and several upper centimeters of layer D of the Hamra soil (Laukhin et al., 1999). The density of archaeological finds increased as the excavation deepened; the greatest concentration was noted closer to the red soil layer. The vast majority of artifacts lay horizontally. The planigraphy of the finds suggests that the complex occurs in situ. All the finds are associated with a thin culture-containing habitat horizon. On a plot of 10 m2, 1,200 artefacts were found during excavations (Figure 1).

Only small pebbles with a fine-grained structure were selected for primary cleavage in Bizat Rukham, although they are not often found in this area (Zaidner, Ronen, Burdukiewicz, 2003). The pebbles were previously split into two or more pieces, which were used as cores. The nuclei from Bizat Rukhama are very small, with an average length of about 23 mm. There are numerous impact pads on the nuclei; the core was rotated with each cleavage. Impact sites were usually the cleavage surfaces of previous fragments, rather than the crusted parts. To obtain blanks of the desired thickness, blows were applied far from the edge of the nucleus. The average length of flakes is approx. 20 mm, width-18 mm, thickness - 9 mm. In most cases, cleavage was performed until complete depletion of the nuclei. At the initial stage of splitting, a single - pole technique was used, and at the final stage, a two-pole technique was used, which is explained by the very small size of the artifacts [Ibid, p. 214]. Flakes often became nuclei and split into small fragments. This led to the appearance of small fragments, which are referred to as angular fragments in the Shungur facies industry. In Bizat Rukham, the following fragments are found:-

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Figure 1. Stone tools from the Bizat Rukhama site (according to: [Zaidner, Ronen, Burdukiewicz, 2003]. 1, 2, 5, 13, 17, 18 - scraped it; 3, 4, 6, 8, 11, 15 - points; 7, 10-notched tools; 9, 12 - points with signs of bifacial processing; 14, 16-nuclei.

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The samples, which make up 20 % of the total number of finds, were apparently made on purpose. Angular fragments were cleaved from cleaved nuclei and from depleted nuclei by single-or bipolar cleavage.

Among the inventory in Bizat Rukham, there are three main typological groups of products [Ibid]. The first category includes pointed tools (40 % of tools), which differ in the features of secondary processing traces. Among the tools, there are two points with signs of bifacial processing, the rest - one-sided processing. The tip was made out mainly with scaly (in the form of notches) and jagged retouching. Guns in this category have a thick tip; some specimens have broken it in use. The second typological group consists of scrapers and retouched products. Massive flakes were treated with steep or semi-steep retouching, as far as possible with the microlytic nature of the industry. The third group consists of notched and serrated tools. They were also made on thick flakes. Approximately half of the notched products belong to the Klecton type [Ibid., p. 217].

Bizat Rukhama is a classic Paleolithic site with a microlithic industry: the length of artifacts averaged about 25 mm. In search of an answer to the question of what determined the microlytic nature of the industry: raw materials or adaptation strategies, the authors of the excavations carefully studied the possibilities of the raw material base in the area. For the manufacture of almost all tools, small pebbles of siliceous rocks were used. Several conglomerate outcrops have been identified within a 5 km radius of the Bizat Rukhama site. The sample showed that the most common rock is silicified limestone, which was widely used as raw materials at the Ubaydiya, Gesher Benot Ya'akov sites. This is followed by breccated flint, the pebbles of which reach an average length of 80 mm, sometimes 150 mm. Much less common are pebbles of brown, beige and white color, small in size-up to 70 mm, with an average length of only 40 mm. For primary and secondary processing, Bizat Rukham mainly used brown and beige flint with a fine-crystalline structure as raw materials. The authors of the excavations make a very definite conclusion :" If the inhabitants of Rukhama had used breccated flint, they could have obtained artifacts of "normal" size, as the people of the late Acheulean did successfully in the same area. However, they ignored the brecciated flint, settling for small pebbles. This reflects a cultural preference rather than a dependence on external conditions" [Ibid., p. 210]. This conclusion is very important, because the choice of microlytic industry by the archanthropes who lived in the Bizat Rukhama area was determined not by the lack of suitable large-sized pebbles, but by their adaptation strategies.

The geochronology of the Bizat Rukhama site is based on RTL and paleomagnetic data. RTL-date for level C: 480 ± 120 KA BP, for culture-containing horizon C1: 740 ± 180 KA BP, for level D: 840 ± 200 Ka BP [Ronen et al., 1998]. Based on the results of the first paleomagnetic analysis, the age of culture-bearing horizons was determined: 0.99-0.85 Ma-between the Jaramillo episode and the Brunes-Matuyama boundary (Laukhin et al., 2001). Repeated paleomagnetic studies have established the reverse polarity for the C1 and D levels, and the estimated age of the culture-bearing horizons is approx. 1 Ma [Zaidner et al., 2003]. New dates for the Paleolithic site of Bizat Rukhama suggest that the archanthropes who used the microlithic industry belonged to early migrants from Africa. To get additional evidence, we need to continue searching for the earliest sites of archanthropes in the Middle East.

So far, no locations with pre-Ashel industry have been found in the Levant. In the earliest multi - layered site of Ubeidia, dating from 1.4-0.9 million years AGO, starting from the lower horizons, pebble tools such as choppers and choppers are combined with choppers. We are confident that in the future we will be able to find more ancient pre-Assyrian sites on this territory, since during the human settlement of Eurasia, the Levant was one of the main transit territories.

In the Levant, microindustry is recorded at the Evron site (Ronen, 1991). It is located on a plain 2.3 km from the coast, at an altitude of 20 m above sea level. Two kulyur-containing horizons (4th and 5th lithological layers) with reverse polarity are distinguished at the site. According to faunal remains, the age of the Euron site is estimated to be just over 1.5 million years (Tchernov et al., 1994). In the stone industry, A. Ronen (2003) identifies artifacts of ordinary and small sizes, as well as with features of typological and technological specifics. The guns are of average size-less than 3 cm. The nuclei are flat, pyramidal, spherical, and small-no more than 3 cm. Among the tools, jagged, notched forms, scrapers, and retouched flakes are distinguished. Typologically, they are very close to the tools from Bizat Rukhama. In other Early Paleolithic sites in the Levant, small stone tools have also been found.-

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they are set, but they are not diagnostic for the entire parking industry.

In the Levant, among the Early Paleolithic sites, there are no artefacts absolutely similar to those found at the Bizat Ruhama site, although in Ubeidia and other Early Paleolithic sites (especially at the Euron site), there are angular fragments and small-sized jagged tools, which indicates the possibility of coexistence of two traditions in stone processing in Israel: ranneashelskaya and mikroliticheskaya. It is very likely that the settlement of archanthropes with microindustry from Africa began earlier than 1.5 million years. This is evidenced by problems with the microindustry in China.

China

The microindustry of the Early Paleolithic in Eurasia has been identified in several large regions. Very important evidence for the spread of microindustry as a result of one of the oldest global migrations of archanthropes allows us to obtain Early Paleolithic sites in East Asia.

There are several locations in China where the microlytic industry is very prominent. The most interesting localities are the Xiaochangliang locality (research began in 1978) and Dongguto locality (discovered in 1981). Numerous literature is devoted to both localities (Wei Qi, 1989; Wei Qi, Meng Hao, and Cheng Shengquan, 1983; Ranov, 1999; Huang Weiwen, 1985; Yu Yuzhu, 1989; Yu Yuzhu, Tang Yingjun, and Li Yi, 1980; Keates, 1994; Pope and Keates, 1994; Wei Qi, 1999].

The cultural remains of the Xiaochangliang site are located in lake sediments. The bones of a vole (Allophaiomys cf. Pliocaenicus), Martes sp., Hyaena licenti, ancient elephant (Palaeoloxoclon sp.), three-toed horse (Hipparion sp.), Sanmen horse (Equus sanmeniensis), woolly rhinoceros (Coelodonta antiquitatis), deer (Cervus sp.), gazelle (Gazella sp.), bull (Bovidae) [Yu Yuzhu, Tang Yingjun, Li Yi, 1980, p. 83].

A comprehensive study of the Xiaochangliang site is largely hampered by the fact that different researchers worked here, there is no complete publication of the finds, and there is no complete analytical data on the site. It is difficult to even calculate the total number of artefacts found at this location in situ.

Stone products (1,816 copies) are small in size (Wei Qi, 1999). There are 96 (5.3%) nuclei, 342 (18.8%) plates, 35 (1.9 %) tools, and 1,343 (74 %) fragments and debris. The artefacts are made of quartz, porous siliceous shale, flint, chalcedony, and igneous rocks (Figure 2). The chips were obtained as a result of direct impact or (less often) the use of bipolar technology. Among the 800 artefacts found by a joint Chinese-American expedition, Keates (1994) identifies: tools with a longitudinal working edge - 15 copies, with a working edge at the end-11 copies, on the edge and end-1 copy, on the edge, decorated with toothed retouching-5 copies, at the end, with signs of jagged retouching-3 copies, with a point-6 copies, notched products-6 copies.

Yu Yuzhu's article [1989] analyzes the materials of Xiaochangliang obtained during small-scale field work during inspections of the parking lot. About 150 artefacts were found on the monument. Half of them have traces of processing and differ in a variety of types of tools. The 38×25×19 mm quartz double-site core preserves the negatives of numerous shots. The collection includes more than 120 flakes and lamellar flakes made mainly of flint. Their length does not exceed an average of 35 mm. There are flakes whose thickness at the proximal end exceeds 10 mm. More than 15 lamellar flakes bear traces of episodic retouching on one of the edges or end.

There are two types of scrapers-with a straight single and rounded blade. Five scrapers with a straight single blade were found. The working blade is decorated with a large uneven retouch on the ventral or dorsal surface. The working part of this type of scraper is thick and reaches 14 mm. Their average length is less than 35 mm. Two scrapers with a rounded blade were identified. They are very small: 15 and 26 mm long. There are traces of fine irregular retouching on the scrapers. Five spikelets were found. For the manufacture of this type of tool, a sub-triangular chip was selected. The tip was completed with small irregular retouching, usually from the ventral part. The average length of the spikelets is less than 35 mm. Two punctures were identified: 35×34×16 mm and 24×23×9 mm.

According to some researchers (see, for example, [Yu Yuzhu, 1989]), six bone tools were found in Xiaochangliang during excavations. However, images of these tools have not been published, and some experts express doubts about their presence (Ranov, 1999).

The age of the site is determined by Chinese archaeologists in different ways: from 1.87-1.67 to 1 million years. Most researchers believe that the average date of the monument is 1.36 million years ago (Zhu et al., 2001; Wu Xian, 2004).

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2. Stone tools from the Xiaochangliang site (from [Yu Yuzhu, 1983; Yoy Yuzhu, Tang Yingjun, Li Yi, 1980]). 1, 3, 4 - flakes; 2, 10, 11-incisors; 5, 15, 16, 17-retouched plates; 6, 22 - plates removed from two-site nuclei; 7 - pointed implement; 8-protocorenoid scraper; 9, 18 - toothed-out tool; 12-side scraper; 13, 14-end scrapers; 19-puncture; 20-two-site nucleus; 21-scraper; 23, 24 - scrapers with a straight blade; 25 - chopping.

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3. Stone tools from the Dongguto site (according to [Wei Qi, 1985; Keates, 2000]). 1-chopper; 2-flake chopper; 3-nucleus chopper; 4, 7, 8, 12-spiky points; 5-multi-sided scraper; 6-plate; 9-11, 13-scrapers; 14-17-nuclei.

The Dongguto site is located in close proximity to the Xiaochangliang site (Jia Lanpo and Wei Qi, 1987; Schick K. et al., 1991; Pope and Keates, 1994). It occupies a large area; the thickness of the cultural horizon reaches 3.2 m. Excavations revealed an area of about 400 m2. Cultural horizon of the Early Pleistocene Nihewan period in three layers - A, B, and E. In terms of the representativeness of the collected osteological and archaeological collections, this is one of the most important sites in the Nihewan Valley (Figure 3). The osteological collection includes 1,525 finds. The bones are highly fragmented. Quite a lot of individual teeth and their fragments (299 specimens, or 19.6 %). Based on the analysis of fossilized remains of teeth, the following animal species were identified: tsokor (Myospalaxfontanieri), wolf (Canis sp.), bear (Ursus sp.), ancient elephant (Palaeoloxodon sp.), Sanmen horse (Equus sanmeniensis), woolly rhinoceros (Coelodonta antiquitatis), bison (Bison sp.), gazelle (Gazella sp.), etc.

The complex of stone products is more than 10 thousand copies. 1432 artifacts were analyzed: 66 (4.6 %) nuclei, 41 (2.9 %) used plates, 143 (10 %) rough tools, 888 (62 %) chips without signs of processing, 278 (19.8 %) fragments and pieces of rock, 6 stone impactors.

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Most of the chips are designed in the form of scrapers, tools with a notch and tools with a pointed blade. According to the size of workpieces and tools, the industry is defined as microlytic. For example, of the 888 artifacts collected in the T1 trench of Horizon A, 68.7 % of the flakes and their fragments were 10-30 mm in size, and 30.6% were 10-20 mm in size (Schick et al., 1991).

The initial raw materials are represented by pebbles of flint, chalcedony, and igneous rocks. Among the chips, micro-tools account for 25.5 %, small - shaped tools - 70.8%, medium-sized tools-3.7%. This indicates the dominance of microindustrial technologies.

Since the Dongguto cultural horizon is 10 m higher than the Xiaochangliang cultural horizon and is close to the level of the upper part of the Nihewan complex, but below the level from the Jaramillo reverse polarity episode, the age of the site is estimated to be approx. 1 million years old.

Based on the stratigraphy and largely similar appearance of the stone industry, we can speak about a certain unity of these two sites in technical and typological terms. Keates (1994), after analyzing the industries of Xiaochangliang and Dongguto, notes that the absolute majority of tools on both sites are flakes: 31.9 and 47.9%, respectively. Their weapon set is similar in type and percentage. The technique of primary cleavage and the shape of the nuclei are similar. Both sites are close in age (although scientists estimate it differently) - a little more than 1 million years-and belong to the same cultural and historical stage. Sites such as Lungupo, Xihoudu, Yuanmou, and some others, dating from 1.8-1 million years ago, are controversial from the point of view of chronology. The best-studied sites of Xiaochangliang and Dongguto have an undisputed microlytic industry. In this regard, it is quite reasonable to assume that the microlytic industry in China was already represented at an early stage of settlement by archanthropes. However, this does not exclude the possibility of discovering new Early Paleolithic sites with the Odduvai industry or obtaining more convincing evidence of antiquity (1.8-1.5 million years) and the indisputable presence of artifacts at some previously discovered sites.

According to many researchers, the industry in China developed in two directions already in the Early Paleolithic: with a large proportion of small-sized artifacts - to the north of the Jinling ridge, with a significant proportion of large-sized artifacts (macro-tools) - to the south of the ridge. Tools of labor in this region were made mainly on flakes [Paleoanthropology..., 1985]. This tradition is clearly represented at one of the well-studied sites of Zhoukoudian I.

Most of the tools from this locality are formed on flakes (71.5 %), while the rest are formed on small chips, fragments of flakes, used nuclei, and pebbles (Keates, 2000). About 70% are small tools (less than 40 mm long), including micro-tools (less than 20 mm long). In Northern China, this tradition is preserved in the industry and other, later, locations [Ibid; Keates, 2003]. It is very likely that the origins of the small-scale flake industry go back to the Early Paleolithic microindustry, and the industry with large tools (macro - tools) - to Odduvai.

Tadjikistan

The second region of Eurasia where microindustry emerged at an early stage is Tajikistan (Ranov, 1988, 1992, 2000; Ranov and Amosova, 1990, 1994; Ranov et al., 1987; Ranov, 1995; Ranov and Dodonov, 2003). One of the earliest sites on this territory is the Kuldara site, located in the lower part of the Kuldara Gorge in the Ob-Mazar River valley. The lower culture-containing layer is overlain by a 120-meter loess layer containing 28 paleosols. The finds were found in paleosols 11 and 12, separated by brown heavy loam, with a strongly developed illuvial carbonate horizon with a thickness of approx. The antiquity of paleosols with finds is about 900 thousand years.

96 samples were found at the site. Among them, V. A. Ranov identified 40 indisputable artefacts (Fig. 4). The following were identified: nuclei - 2 copies, plates-2 copies, flakes-3 copies, flakes with negatives-10 copies, flakes and wedge-shaped chips-2 copies, fragments and chips with negatives and retouching-3 copies, lobules, or citron slices - 2 copies, retouched pebbles-3 copies, punctures-2 copies, side scrapers and scrapers - 4 copies, bifacial tool fragment-1 copy, fragments-6 copies.

One nucleus, according to the description of V. A. Ranov, is multiplatform, disc-shaped and even wedge-shaped; its upper surface is wide, and the lower surface narrows into a wedge. The point formed by alternating negatives was used as a tool - a rough side scraper with a slightly jagged edge. Dimensions: 34×39×24 mm. The other core is single-site, with a flattened working surface, on most of which there were no cleavage negatives. Dimensions: 34×29×19 mm.

Plates or lamellar flakes are small in size. One plate has negatives of two parallel shots. The cleavage site retains the crust and is located at an obtuse angle to the ventral surface (less than 120°). Dimensions: 38 × 16×11 mm.

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Fig. 4. Stone tools from the Kuldara site (according to [Ranov, Dodonov, 2003]). 1, 2, 8, 13- retouched flakes; 3, 12-retouched fragments; 4 - a tool with a spike; 5-a plate chip; 6, 7 - fragments; 9 - a fragment of a bifacial products; 10, 11, 15-scrapers; 14-pebbles with chips; 16, 18-nuclei; 17, 19-citron-type slices.

Flakes bear traces of processing. Wedge-shaped chips, fragments and fragments with negatives and signs of retouching are small in size, with traces of good and hard-to-read touch-ups. V. A. Ranov highlights slices, or quarter d'orange, among the artifacts of Kuldara, considering them characteristic products of the pebble industry. On one of the fragments of pebbles, a small protrusion-a spout-is formed with small chips. On the chipped pebbles, two sharp-tipped tools were made, which could be used as punctures.

Side scrapers and scrapers represent the most expressive part of the tool kit. All of them are small in size. The working part is decorated with retouching, mostly jagged. The fragment of the bifacial tool is made of a piece of dark gray felsite-porphyry, diamond-shaped in cross-section. Dimensions: 28×37×15 mm. Processing is more typical for biface than for nucleus.

V. A. Ranov [Ranov and Dodonov, 2003], summarizing the characteristics of the Kuldara stone inventory, emphasizes the small size of artifacts. One-fourth of the artefacts are less than 20 mm long, and half are up to 40 mm long. Stone splitting is performed mainly by the pebble method, which is characterized by a predominance of cortical flakes. At the same time, despite some "archaism" of primary processing, many tools are designed very well.

From our point of view, it was on the basis of the Kuldara microindustry that the Early and Middle Paleolithic industry of Tajikistan was formed. Although micro-tools are practically absent in the Paleolithic sites of later stages, however, the pebble base of primary splitting and secondary processing of stone tools on the territory of Tajikistan has been preserved for a long time.

Dagestan

New evidence in favor of the hypothesis of the spread of microindustry as a result of migration processes allows us to obtain a recently discovered Early Paleolithic microindustrial complex on the Caspian lowland. In the course of exploration work in 2003-2004, an expedition of the Institute of Archaeology and Ethnography of the Siberian Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences, the Institute of Archaeology of the Russian Academy of Sciences, and the Institute of Ethnology and Anthropology of the Russian Academy of Sciences discovered nine Paleolithic sites in the Darvagchai and Rubas River basins [Derevyanko, Amirkhanov, Zenin, Anoykin, and Rybin, 2004; Amirkhanov, Derevyanko, 2005; Derevyanko, Amirkhanov, and Zenin, Anoikin and Chepalyga, 2005].

In the territory of Dagestan, the earliest localities were found on the northern slope of the Gejukh reservoir on the left bank of the Darvagchai. Five localities of various Paleolithic finds were recorded here. On one of them, several artifacts were extracted from conglomerates - nucleoid fragments, scrapers, tools with a spout, flakes. Pebble conglomerates occur at an altitude of 125 to 140 m above sea level. The formation of conglomerates is associated with the transgression of the Caspian Sea.

In 2005, stationary surveys began at the Darvagchai-1 site (Figure 5). The excavations yielded completely unexpected results*. 6 - 8) (height 110 m above sea level or 137 m above the level of the Caspian Sea), it was revealed that-

* Artefacts were obtained as a result of three weeks of work by the team (Doctor of Historical Sciences V. N. Zenin (head of the team), PhD). A. A. Anoikin, with the participation of a corresponding member. RAS Kh. A. Amirkhanov and the author).

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5. Darvagchai-1 site. 1-excavation 1; 2-excavation 2; 3-coastal outcrop.

6. Pleistocene deposits in the coastal outcrop at the Darvagchai-1 site.

7. Upper part of Pleistocene deposits in excavation 1 of the Darvagchai-1 site.

8. Pleistocene deposits in excavation 2 of the Darvagchai-1 site.

9. Flint products in the shell rock layer in the coastal outcrop at the Darvagchai-1 site.

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Fig. 10. A product made of flint in a shell rock block.

11. Fragment of a mammalian tooth in the shell rock block.

12. Fragment of a mammalian tubular bone in the shell rock block.

two culture-containing horizons are identified. The lower horizon is recorded in the eighth lithological layer of ditrite limestone with the inclusion of a small amount of gravel material (Figs. During the formation of this layer, the studied section of the terrace was a beach of the coastal section of the lagoon that supported the Darvagchay River. The layer contains remains of marine fauna, and conglomerates of the Early Baku transgression contain a bone of a large mammal and a tooth of a small carnivore (?). 11, 12). Almost all the artefacts (mostly made of flint) were no more than 5 cm long (Figure 13). Among the tools presented are peaked heads, points, scrapers, tools with

13. Samples of flint products from the Darvagchai-1 site.

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14. Stone tools from the Darvagchai-1 site. 1, 2-scrapers; 3, 5, 6, 8-awl-shaped tools; 4, 11-retouched flakes; 7, 10-combined tools; 9 - excavated tool; 12-scraper; 13-knife with a butt.

a recess, an end-type core, tools with a spike-spout, etc. 14, 15).

The second crop-bearing horizon was located in the third lithological layer, which is a boulder-pebble-gravel conglomerate at the end of the Baku transgression, overlain by a thick (up to 3 m) pack of subaerial sediments and a modern soil-sod layer (24 cm) formed after the Baku transgression. In the second culture-bearing horizon, the stone industry retains a microindustrial appearance; in the layer, a small protorubil was also found, decorated on pebbles.

The age of the layers with the finds is preliminarily determined from the marine fauna by the framework of the early stage of the Neo-Pleistocene (800-600 thousand years).

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15. Stone tools from the Darvagchai site-1. 1, 2, 9, 10, 12, 13, 15, 16, 18, 20 - scrapers; 3, 4, 11, 17 - notched tools; 5-combined tools; 6, 8-spiked tools; 7-retouched fragment; 14 - tool with incisor cleavage; 19, 21-nuclei.

Darvagchai-1 is undoubtedly a settlement complex; its materials provide important evidence in favor of the hypothesis of migration of archanthropes with microindustry from Africa to Eurasia.

Europe

Early localities in Europe (lower cultural horizons of the Gran Dolina locality - levels TD 4, TD 5, and TD 6) [Pares and Perez-Gonzalez, 1999], according to magnetostratigraphic data, are located between the Jaramillo inversion and the Brunes-Matuyama boundary (more than 1 million and 780 thousand years). The localities of Monte Poggiolo (Peretto et al., 1998), Le Vallonnet (Lumley et al., 1988), Soleillac (Bonifay, 1991), and Fuente Nueva 3 (Gibert et al., 1998) belong to approximately the same chronological range.

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The industry of these localities is characterized mainly by primary and secondary processing in the Olduvai tradition. In Atapuerca (Spain), 268 artefacts of flint, limestone, sandstone, and quartz were found on a 6 m2 site in the TD 6 level (Carbonell et al., 2001). Primary cleavage was performed mainly by bifacial and unifacial longitudinal methods, and centripetal cleavage was often used. The location of Atapuerca is remarkable because it has three distinct stratigraphic and cultural stages: Olduvai (from 1 million to 780 thousand years ago), Angelic (from 450 to 250 thousand years ago), and Mousterian (from 400 to 200 thousand years ago) [Ibid]. The Mousterian industry identified at this site is one of the oldest in Europe. At all stages in Atapuerca, if desired, the microlytic industry can be traced: there are signs of centripetal cleavage and the use of products of this cleavage. But, of course, the conclusion about the presence of a microlytic industry here can be made with a large degree of exaggeration.

In Europe, there are locations with a much more pronounced microindustry. Sites in the Orsay region of Spain that, based on paleontological, biostratigraphic, and paleomagnetic data, date from ca. 1 million years AGO, they are characterized by tools formed mainly on small flakes (Turq et al., 1996; Gibertetal., 1998).

Microindustry is most pronounced on the European continent at the Isernia la Pineta site (Italy), discovered in 1978 in the vicinity of Isernia (Isernia La Pineta..., 1983; Cesnola, 1996). Early Paleolithic sites are located here in the immediate vicinity of the river in a basin on the surface of a travertine layer disturbed by tectonic processes. The total area of the territory where archaeological finds were found is approx. 20 thousand m2. For a long time, people have repeatedly come here. During the excavations, a residential area specially equipped with bones of large animals and large blocks of travertines was recorded here.

Excavations were conducted in two sectors. Two horizons were found in sector 1 - 3c and 3a. The lower crop-bearing horizon, where a 40 m2 area was uncovered, was located on travertines. It was covered with sterile silt. The second culture-bearing horizon is marked in the upper floodplain facies of silty deposits. As the researchers suggest, ancient man covered the silt layer with specially selected large bones (tusks, tibia, femur, shoulder, pelvic bones and shoulder blades of an elephant; skulls and jaws of rhinos and bison) to strengthen the living surface. In sector 1, a plot of 64 m2 was uncovered. During the excavations, several tens of thousands of finds were found-artifacts and bones of wild animals. In some areas of the excavations, a significant concentration of finds was noted, while in others - individual remains of human activity.

Four thick lithological units of loose sediments, divided into a series of layers, were identified in the excavation area. These layers are separated from each other by four buried soils. The culture-containing layers were located in the third pack of cover sediments. At the base of this pack is ancient soil overlaying travertines. Animal bones and artifacts were found in the roof of the buried soil in the clay horizon. After the formation of this buried soil, river floodplain sediments formed a thick silt pack, on the surface of which a second horizon of human habitation was recorded. Faunal remains and artefacts were also found in secondary deposits in different parts of river sediments in the upper part of Pack 3. They indicate the existence of human habitats located probably upstream of the river and gradually eroded and redeposited in the later upper layers of Pack 3.

In sector 1, the layer with a habitat horizon overlies deposits of colluvium containing silt, silty sand and sands. The K/Ar sanidine sample was dated to 0.736 ± 0.04 Ma (Delitala, Fornaseri, and Nicoletti, 1983). According to paleomagnetic measurements, these deposits have an inverse magnetic polarity (McPherron and Schmidt, 1983).

The main habitat horizons at the Isernium la Pineta locality in sector 1 lie on travertines and are included in the paleosoil. In sector 2, this soil is partially covered by fluvial sediments, which also contain animal bones and artifacts. Ancient human populations came to this area and settled near the watercourse immediately after the end of the lake cycle and at the beginning of the fluvial cycle. Crop-bearing horizons were quickly blocked by volcanic materials and fluvial sediments, which contributed to the good preservation of wild animal bones. The periods of human settlement of these places were separated by a small chronological break. The age of the locality is a little more than 700 thousand years.

The landscape in the area of the location resembled a steppe or prairie with free-standing trees, which was inhabited by herds of bison and numerous pachyderms. In the floodplain areas, overgrown with trees and shrubs, deer and wild boar lived. Faunal materials include wasps-

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16. Stone products from the site of Isernia La Pineta (by: [Isernia La Pineta..., 1983]). 1, 15 - scrapers; 2,3 -transverse toothed scrapers; 4, 5, 7, 12 - notched tools; 6, 9, 14, 16-convergent bilateral tools; 8, 11 - nuclei; 10 - scrape; 13-toothed scrape.

bison tanks (Bison cf. schoetensacki Freudenberg), rhinoceros (Dicerorhinus hemitoecus Falconer), elephant (Elephas antiquus Falconeri). The remains of bear (Ursus cf. deningeri von Reichenau) and Hippopotamus amphibius L., wild boar (Sus strofa L.), and deer (Megaceros sp.) are less represented.

Several thousand artefacts were found during the excavations (Figures 16-18). Sector 1 features tools made of limestone and flint pebbles. In sector 2, only flint was processed. The source of raw materials was located near the location. Morphotypic and technological characteristics

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17. Stone products from the site of Isernia La Pineta (by: [Isernia La Pineta..., 1983]). 1,4 , 7 - cross toothed scrapers; 2, 5, 9, 10, 12 - 15 - toothed unilateral and bilateral tools; 3, 6, 8-scrapers; 11 - cross scraper.

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18. Stone products from the site of Isernia la Pineta (by: [IserniaLaPineta..., 1983]). 1, 2, 5 - nuclei; 3, 4, 6-choppers.

The characteristics of the stone industry are clearly distinctive (Peretto, 1983).

Most of the finds were found in sector 2 on a 68 m2 plot. Several types of nuclei were found: monofrontal, with a parallel removal front, orthogonal, and pyramidal in shape. The sites are smooth-planar, rarely dotted, pebbly, or dihedral. Small flakes were chipped from such nuclei. Often their thickness exceeds the length. Most guns are between 2.5 and 3.5 cm long.

Step retouching was almost never used in the design of weapons. Often, a chip was made on the blank, which was additionally worked out by small retouching. Deep retouching, applied sequentially, formed a jagged edge. The tool set is dominated by toothed (more than 90 %) products. Among the tools of labor, there are scrapers, beak - shaped, as well as toothed and notched tools, toothed uni-and bilateral scrapers, and toothed pinnacles.

Scrapers are a relatively small group. Most are convex laterally, including with a dihedral ventral side. In terms of thickness, they are on average smaller than toothed tools. The working surface was treated with large chips, in some cases - retouching.

Excavated tools are quite numerous. They were made from massive flakes. The recess was formed with a single deep chip and was not corrected by retouching.

Toothed uni-and bilateral scrapers make up the most numerous group of tools. Many of them are oval in shape. They were made on massive blanks. Some samples are up to 5 cm long. Among them, there are lateral (left and right), transverse (distal and proximal). Their back is flat and convex. The working blade is designed with a large sequential retouch.

The serrated tips have a sub-triangular shape. Most of them are bifacial processed. In many samples, the tip is decorated with one or two deep chips, as a rule, without additional processing, on individual products-traces of jagged retouching. Many of the pinnacles are asymmetrical in plan. There are quite a few right-and left-hand spikelets, where the counter secondary processing has modified and eliminated the site. Some of the points on the three faces have traces of secondary processing.

Scrapers are a small group. They are made on small thickened blanks. Their length is from 1 to 3 cm. The working blade is semicircular, made out with a cool retouch, sometimes with short plate shots.

Artefacts and animal bones from Sector 1 come from two culture-containing horizons separated by a sterile layer up to 70 cm thick. But each of these horizons of Sector 1, as well as Sector 2, is a single whole in terms of manufacturing technology and types of tools. Only

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the difference is that in sector 1, in addition to flint, limestone was used - choppers were made from it. They are large in size: they reach a length of 15 cm. At one end of them, a working blade is made out in short cuts. Only a few samples have traces of processing around the perimeter, with the help of which the choppers were given a semicircular shape.

The industry of Isernia la Pineta can undoubtedly be attributed to microlytic. The number of guns larger than 5 cm is small, mostly choppers. Another feature of the industry is the large number of jagged and notched tools, as well as tools designed with jagged retouching. The typological diversity of gear tools, numbering several thousand copies, is very difficult to trace, because some forms can pass into others. Among the numerous products, it is difficult to distinguish fundamentally different diagnostic features. It is the microlytic appearance of the industry combined with toothed tools and artifacts with signs of toothed retouching that brings Isernia la Pineta closer to other microlytic industries in Eurasia.

In Europe, microindustry is also known at sites dating back to 600-300 thousand years ago. The Buda industry (Vertesseles) and the jagged shape microindustry (Bilzingsleben) can be considered as a continuation of the tradition of the early layer of microindustry associated with one of the stages of the initial settlement of Europe by archanthropes, but with elements of acculturation as a result of the penetration of other migration flows of human populations into Europe.

The Verstessseles site is located on the fourth terrace of the Athalar River (Verstesszolos..., 1990). Primary cleavage is characterized as lobular, non-valloisian, non-lamellar, and non-facetted. Raw materials for tools and production waste of very small dimensions (fig. 19). The tool set is characterized by choppers, choppers of mainly microlytic appearance, scrapers (longitudinal, transverse, triangular, double), scrapers (atypical and high-shaped, incisors, punctures). The date of this location is based on geomorphological observations, faunal remains, and thorium-uranium determinations. The earliest age belongs to the chronological range of 600-350 thousand years.

The culture-bearing horizons of the Bilzingsleben locality are associated with heavy accumulations of travertine sands (Mania and Weber, 1986; Mania, 1990). Primary splitting is represented by signs of unsystematic, less often parallel radial and Levallois methods. The chips are mostly shortened and massive; there are also lobular varieties (Fig. 20). The products have a pronounced microlytic character. Among the tools presented are sharp points, numerous cutting tools with and without a tip, many toothed forms, scrapers, micro-choppers and choppers. A bone product identified as a scraper was found at the site, as well as the remains of wooden objects and their fossilized prints. They were interpreted as spearheads, javelins with a hole at one end, spatulas, shovel-shaped tools, a wooden product with a curved end in the form of a hook.

Based on the results of complex studies (geological, paleontological), as well as a series of uranium and amino acid dates (228, 301-179, and 350-335 Ka BP), the finds are attributed to the late phase of the Mindelris Interglacial.

In Germany, in Lower Saxony, two localities were studied - Schöningen-12

19. Stone tools from the Verstessselesh site (according to [Verstesszolos..., 1990]).
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20. Stone tools from the Bilzingsleben site (according to [Bruhl, 2003]). 1, 7-punctures; 2-5, 15, 28-scrapers; 6, 13, 16, 20, 32 - notched tools; 8, 12, 19, 24-pointed tools; 9, 26, 29, 30, 33 - nuclei; 10, 23, 27, 31, 34-bilaterally worked tools; 11, 18-scraper-shaped tools; 14, 21, 22 - tools with a blunted edge; 17-Quinson point; 25-toothed tool; 35-chopper.

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and Schöningen-13 II-4, which belong to the Early Paleolithic (Thieme, 2003). Culture-bearing horizons occur in lithological horizons related to the Holstein interglacial. Primary cleavage is associated with the production of small flakes, mainly up to 50 mm, and the manufacture of tools on them. Among the tool kit there are notched products, bifacially processed flakes and miniature bifaces, convergent scrapers, peaked scrapers, dezhete scrapers, retouched flakes. Of particular interest are four wooden maneuverable guns. They are defined as the basis for fixing micro-tools in them. These are the most ancient remnants of the foundations for making complex composite tools. These objects are 12, 17, 19.1 and 32.2 cm long and have a diagonal groove cut out at one end, where small stone tools were inserted. Wooden products could be used by a person at the earliest stage of his tool activity. Wooden bases for micro-tools found in Schöningen and Bilzingsleben strongly suggest that complex composite products appeared very early. Date of Schöningen sites-450-400 thousand years ago.

Parking lots with a microindustry close to the Bilzingsleben industry were studied in Poland (Burdukiewicz, 2003). During excavations at the Trzebnik-2 sites, one large and three small clusters of artifacts were found - more than 1,400 copies; the Rusko-33 site was investigated over a small area, and approximately 350 artifacts were found here; at the Rusko-42 site, artifacts have traces of grinding as a result of their movement by water flows. The stone inventory of these sites is divided into three main groups: nuclei, tools on flakes, and flakes.

Many of the nuclei had prepared impact pads, and more than half of them were almost completely worked out as a result of removing flakes from them. The average length of flakes from the Rusko site is 33, as in Bilzingsleben, 17 mm, from the Rusko site-42-17 mm, from two Trzebnik horizons-2-20 mm. The tools are represented by side scrapers, notched and notched tools, pointed tools, punchers, and retouched flakes. Traceological analysis showed that non-retouched flakes were also used to perform various works. The size of the nuclei, flakes, and tools, as well as the processing techniques (often jagged retouching was used, large chips were made that formed the excavated tools) combine these early Paleolithic sites with other sites in Europe with microindustry.

Pre-Mousterian microindustrial localities in Central Europe were first identified by K. Valoch [Valoch, 1977]. V. N. Gladilin and V. I. Sitlivy [1990] divided the Acheulean region of Central Europe into several local variants, highlighting, in particular, the micro-Acheulean industry. In their opinion, the" micro-land " of Central Europe developed from the oldest micro-complexes of East Africa (Shungura, Omo, Koobi Fora) and the Mediterranean (Soleillac and probably more ancient sites of France, Walloon, Sallet (?), Isernia) and was the basis for the local micro-region (Taubach, Kulna, Tata, etc.). [Ibid., p. 140]. This conclusion is largely fair. It is hoped that further study of the Angelic and Early Mousterian localities will provide new evidence for the presence of the Olduvai industry and microindustry in the Early Paleolithic of Europe and, on this basis, for the formation of Early Mousterian complexes. In Europe, elements of the microlytic industry persisted even at the early stage of the Upper Pleistocene. It is very likely that on this continent the tradition, which was carried by a person with the microindustry of the pre-Acheulean migration wave, appeared at other sites of the Early Paleolithic, but with the arrival of migrants with the Acheulean industry, these traditions were included in the acculturation process. At some Mousterian sites, the appearance of small stone tools is the result of convergence and the formation of new adaptive strategies.

Kazakhstan

In Central Asia, as in Europe, the Paleolithic localities of the late Lower - Middle Neo-Pleistocene show a tradition of microindustry. In Tajikistan, V. A. Ranov sees the Kultara industry as the basis of the pebble industry [Ranov and Shefer, 2000; Ranov and Dodonov, 2003], which is reflected in other localities of the Karatau culture - Karatau, Lahuti, Obi-Mazar.

In Central Asia, microindustry was most pronounced at the Early Paleolithic sites Koshkurgan-1 and -2 and Shoktas-1, -2, -3 (Derevyanko, Petrin, and Taimagambetov, 2000; Early Paleolithic Industrial Complexes..., 2000). The localities are located in the Turkestan district of South Kazakhstan region on a foothill plain between the southwestern slope of the Karatau River and the Syr Darya River valley. In the area of the small village of Koshkurgan, covering an area of about a hundred square kilometers, seven ancient ascending water sources-griffins-have been identified, which probably functioned throughout the Pleistocene. Here, due to the high content of mineral salts in the waters of griffins, travertine lakes were formed.

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21. Stone tools from the Shoktas-1 site. 1-combined tools; 2-flakes with signs of toothed retouching; 3, 18 - tools with a spike; 4, 14, 19-scrapers; 5, 6, 8, 11, 13 - scrapers; 7-puncture; 9 - nucleus levallois; 10, 15, 16 - toothed-notched tools; 12-a tool with a notch; 17-biface.

rings up to 30 m in diameter. This area, which in the Pleistocene epoch had a special paleoecological situation due to the presence of permanent water sources in the conditions of general aridization of the climate, was often visited by humans, as well as small and large animals.

In the course of field studies, it was possible to trace the process of accumulation of subaqueous deposits inside the travertine ring itself. There are six stages of travertine formation at the Koshkurgan-1 parking lot. Based on samples taken from sediments that correspond to the specified stages, the EPR method determined six dates: 500 ± 75; 430 ± 20; 320 ± 90; 300 ± 90; 250 ± 75; 40 ± 12 thousand hp

These data can be extrapolated to materials from other localities, including Shoktas-1, pic-

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22. Stone tools from the Shoktas-1 site. 1-Levallois nucleus; 2 - a tool with a notch; 3 - Levallois removal; 4, 7, 9 - scrapers; 5 ,8 - toothed tools; 6 - a scraper; 10 - disk-shaped nucleus; 11-biface; 12-orthogonal nucleus; 13 - a weapon with a spike.

Studies show that travertine monuments of the "fountain" type are similar in all respects. Using the EPR method, dates were obtained for four bone samples from the sand lens: 501 ±23; 487 ± 20; 470 ±35; 427 ± 48 They are consistent with chronological definitions based on the paleontological material of the Koshkurgan faunal complex, an analog of the Early Pleistocene Tiraspol faunal complex of Eastern Europe.

The locations of Koshkurgan-1, -2 and Shoktas-1, -2, -3, which demonstrate the same industry, are similar in culture. The primary cleavage in the lower culture-bearing horizon at these localities is represented by Levallois, orthogonal, single-site monofrontal, discoid, and chopping nuclei. The maximum size of the nuclei is 7 cm, the minimum size is 2 cm.

The Levallois nuclei are oval in shape. Laterals and impact pads were prepared

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23. Stone tools from the Shoktas parking lot-1. 1, 3, 4, 6 - 2, 7, 9-levallois nuclei; 5-single-site nuclei; 8-chopper-like nuclei.

small chips: Levallois spiky points, lamellar chips and flakes were removed from one or two working planes. Orthogonal nuclei are mostly spherical in shape. The surface of the nuclei is covered with numerous negatives of shortened shots. The plane formed by the previous chip was used as an impact pad for subsequent removal. Single-site monofrontal nuclei are mostly oval in shape. The impact pad in some nuclei bears traces of fine-tuning with small chips, while in others it retains a pebbly surface. Chopping-shaped nuclei, or nuclei from the "rib", were made on pebbles. Using one

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the master made chipping of shortened flakes alternately from two adjacent planes. Some items could be used as chopping tools. Disc-shaped nuclei are made on rounded pebbles. Shortened flakes were chipped from the edges to the center. Describing the primary cleavage, it should be noted the high level of ancient masters in the preparation of nuclei, the maximum use of working surfaces and the variety of methods used.

Among the chips, the leading place is occupied by flakes (more than 50 %: primary-up to 25 %, secondary-more than 20 %), a lot of fragments and debris. Medium - sized chips (30-40 mm) predominate - more than 50 %, they are slightly inferior to small chips (10-20 mm) - approx. 40 %, large chips (60 - 70 mm) are slightly represented. Among the flakes, massive short and shortened chips predominate. There are few elongated chips. Most chips have damaged and undetectable areas. Among the chips with detectable areas, there are smooth and faceted ones.

The set of weapons at the Koshkurgan-1, -2 and Shoktas-1, -2, and -3 localities is diverse (Figs. 21-24). The most numerous and typologically diverse group consists of scrapers: single, longitudinal, convex; single, longitudinal, concave; single, longitudinal, straight; single, transverse; double, longitudinal; double, convergent, on lamellar blanks; double, convergent, on flakes; double, convergent, massive; double,convergent, on flakes. angular; double, longitudinally-transverse; retouched along the perimeter; single with an edge; on pebbles and fragments of pebbles. Among the tools, the proportion of notched and toothed-notched forms is high. There are tools with a spike and punctures; tools with a butt; double, side, end scrapers; combined, original bifacial products; plates and plate chips, as well as flakes with retouching.

Secondary processing was performed by retouching. Some of the guns, especially on small pebbles, are decorated with upholstery. Tools were treated mainly with dorsal, usually steep or semi-steep retouching. The most common ones are jagged, scaly, and scaly - step retouching. Ventral retouching was used in the design of the scrapers.

The comparison revealed a great similarity of the Koshkurgan-1 (504 copies) and Shoktas-1 (549 copies) gun sets. The collections are based on scrapers (single, double, on pebbles). For Koshkurgan-1, the skrebel index (IR) is 60.9, for Shoktas-1-39.3. At the latter location, there are fewer notched and notched products. In the set of weapons from Koshkurgan-1, they account for 15.2%, Shoktas-1-6.9 %. The third place in terms of specific weight in the tool kit of both monuments is shared by scrapers - 6.1 and 4%, respectively, tools with a butt - 6.5 and 1 %, with a spike-3.5 and 1.4 %. Small but stable series of punctures, combined tools, original products and bifacially processed tools are presented. These types of tools determine the appearance of the Koshkurgan-Shoktas industry.

Based on the above data, we can speak with complete confidence about the ensembles of Koshkurgan-1 and Shoktas-1 as Early Paleolithic microindustrial complexes. The average size of the guns is less than 50 mm. The initial raw material for them was small pebbles. The set of nuclei is dominated by Levallois and single-site monofrontal varieties. The typological basis of the collection of tools is made up of scrapers and notched forms. The complexes of both monuments are characterized by neleval-

24. Stone tools from the Koshkurgan-1 parking lot. 1-double angular scraper; 2, 3, 5, 6, 12 - double convergent scraper; 4, 11-scraped; 7 - 10 - scraped on pebbles; 13-double scraper; 14, 15, 18-scrapers; 16, 17-notched tools; 19, 20, 22-bifaces; 21-retouched plate.

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loise shortened chips with non-facetted impact pads. The collections of Koshkurgan-1 and Shoktas-1 provide comprehensive information on the technical and typological features of one of the main lines of industry development during the Early Paleolithic of Central Asia.

Discussion

A study of the microindustry of the Koshkurgan-1 and Shoktas-1, -2, -3 localities and materials of monuments of this type in Eurasia led us to the hypothesis of the East Asian origin of this industrial complex [Derevyanko, Petrin. Taimagambetov, 2000; Early Paleolithic microindustrial complexes..., 2000]. At present, we consider it possible to offer a different solution to the problem of the oldest migrations in Eurasia.

The seminar "Small Tools of the Lower Paleolithic in Europe and the Levant", held in Liege in 1993 as part of the International Congress of Protohistories (Lower Palaeolithic..., 2003), was important for understanding many problems related to the study of microindustry in the Early Paleolithic. The main conclusions of the discussion can be formulated as follows:

1) it was recognized that the small tool industry appears to be ca. 1 million years AGO and is widely distributed in Eurasia. Micro-tools are found at sites of the Early Paleolithic, and this tradition persists in Central Europe until the late and Middle Paleolithic.;

2) the emergence of the small tool industry was mainly explained by natural and climatic conditions and, in this connection, changes in the adaptation strategies of ancient populations of Eurasia.

First of all, it is necessary to clarify the meaning of the concept of "small tools" and find out to which complexes it is applicable. From our point of view, this phenomenon can be called the Early Paleolithic microindustry. In the Paleolithic, two chronological periods can be distinguished, the micro-tools of which are represented not by individual morphotypes, but by diagnostic elements of the industry: the Early Paleolithic and the final Upper Paleolithic-Mesolithic. In the Upper Paleolithic-Mesolithic, we can distinguish the Western tradition with tools of geometric shapes and the eastern - microplate (North, Central, East Asia and North America), in which tools of geometric shapes (Korea Peninsula, Kyushu Island) play a minor role, and their appearance can be explained by convergence. Both traditions are formed on the basis of lamellar cleavage of specially prepared nuclei.

The Early Paleolithic microindustry is a special phenomenon in the historical and cultural development of mankind, and it should be considered as one of the main bases of the tool activity of archanthropes. The spread of microindustry in Eurasia is associated with one of the two pre-Ashelian human migrations from Africa in the chronological range of 2-1.5 million years AGO. Small and large tools are abstract definitions. Microindustry is characterized by:

1) the predominance of tools (90% or more) with dimensions not exceeding 50 mm. In some locations, there may be a small number of slightly larger tools, but these are chippers and chopping products such as choppers and choppers;

2) all the main types of stone tools are made on flakes. In the earliest sites of Eurasia (1.3 - 0.7 Ma), more than 50 % of stone tools are 15-30 mm in size. In primary processing, a technical technique was often used, when the plane formed by the previous removal was used as an impact platform for subsequent cleavages;

3) among the tools, the most typical are scrapers, scrapers, serrated and notched tools, punctures, points, tools with a spike. For the design of tools, toothed and scaly-step retouching were most often used, as well as chips to form a deep notch on the tool. Very often, siliceous rocks of stone were used as raw materials.

The presence of only small-sized tools at a number of Early Paleolithic sites also determined adaptation strategies. First, the predominance of small tools meant the use of wooden bases for the manufacture of complex composite products. Therefore, to ensure the durability and efficiency of liners, the hardest and most durable stone types were chosen as raw materials. Wood, like stone, was probably used at the very dawn of human history. The discovery of wooden handles for composite tools in Schöningen and Bilzingsleben confirms this assumption. The presence of scrapers and notched tools in Bizat Rukham, Darvagchay, and other Early Paleolithic sites indicates that they were used for processing wood and bone. This is also confirmed by traceological studies (Steguweit, 2001). Secondly, the main source of food, apparently, was sea or river resources and gathering products. Presence of large theriophau remains at a number of localities (Isernia la Pineta, Bilzingsleben, etc.)-

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This is most likely evidence of cadaveric eating, which did not exclude hunting for small animals.

The appearance of an early Paleolithic microindustry in a particular area of Eurasia can be explained by special adaptation strategies of people corresponding to changes in the natural environment, or by the presence of only small pebbles. But this contradicts the facts. Natural environment in the Early Pleistocene in Bizat Ruham, Xiaochangliang districts. Dunguto, Kuldary, Darvagchaya were different, and the stone industry has a surprising similarity. In Bizat Rukham, Darvagchai, and other sites with an early Paleolithic microindustry in the vicinity of the sites, there were pebbles of various quality and sizes, but only pebbles of a certain quality and small size were used for primary splitting and tool making. Thus, such selectivity was initially determined not by the characteristics of raw materials, but by stable traditions and human needs in microindustries.

S. Peretto interprets micro-tools in Isernia la Pineta mainly as industrial waste (Peretto, 1983). Experimentally, it was proved that when a strong bump on a nucleus standing on an anvil was hit with a bump, the nucleus broke and the waste from such splitting resembled jagged and notched tools with traces of steep retouching. We do not consider it necessary to dispute the possibility of such an "opportunistic" splitting procedure. In Bizat Rukham, Kuldar, Darvagchai and other localities, small stones were selected and all tools made from flakes show signs of careful processing with steep or jagged retouching. The study of collections does not allow us to doubt that the entire operational chain in microindustries provided for the production of a scraper, scraper, dredged or toothed tool as the final product. In Isernia la Pineta, judging by the illustrations, a similar process took place. The conclusions drawn from modern experiments do not always correspond to the intentions and final results of the person who processed the stone a million years ago. We have no doubt that micro-tools are not random products of the recycling process, but the result of fairly well-thought-out sequential actions to select raw materials, split pebbles and turn the flake with a certain retouching into a well-processed and effective tool.

From our point of view, three different processes served as the basis for the emergence and spread of microindustry in Eurasia in the Early and Middle Paleolithic. The Olduvai industry and the Omo microindustry in Africa may have been the material culture of the archanthropes of the two earliest waves of migration to Eurasia. The current level of knowledge about the geography of the localities suggests that the earliest human populations moved from Africa by two routes: north-through the Middle East and south-over a land bridge across the Red Sea to Southern Arabia. Olduvai industry and microindustry are equally represented in the Early Paleolithic localities of Eurasia. No stone tools have yet been found with early Homo erectus in Southeast Asia, and it is not possible to determine which industry is the oldest in eastern Eurasia. The Xiaochangliang and Dongguto microindustry sites are currently the oldest in China. This means that microindustry appeared in East Asia between 1.4 and 1.3 million years ago. Locations such as Xihoudu, Yuanmou, Langupo, and others remain problematic from the point of view of determining the chronology and identifying deliberate tool activity. If in the future researchers manage to establish the indisputable presence of tools at these sites, as well as their antiquity of more than 1.5 million years, then we can confidently speak of two migration waves of archanthropes to East and Southeast Asia with the Olduvai industry and microindustry. In Eurasia, the human migration wave and microindustry are associated with the Early Paleolithic sites of Bizat Rukhama, Kuldara, and Darvagchai (lower culture-containing horizon of ca. 800 thousand years).

According to M. Otte (2003), the earliest sites in Europe also contain microindustry. It seems to us that in the Earliest Paleolithic period (1 million - 700 thousand years AGO), localities with pre-Ashel (Olduvai) industry and microindustry co-existed here.

The second process is acculturation. In Europe, there are known sites older than 700 thousand years that demonstrate the manufacture and use of hand choppers, the appearance of which can be explained by a new migration wave of ancient populations. Since that time, there has been a process of acculturation of the ancient local population (rather small) and newcomers and their industry. Examples of acculturation in Europe are the Bilzingsleben and Revenivz sites (Czech Republic); in Asia, the Early Paleolithic sites Koshkurgan - 1, -2 and Shoktas-1, -2, -3.

The third process that led to the appearance of micro-tools is related to the adaptation strategies of ancient populations that met changing ecological conditions. In this case, it is more correct to speak not about the microindustry as a whole, but about the presence of individual types of small sizes in the Middle Paleolithic.

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stone tools. This type of industry can be attributed to the micro-district in Yabrud.

The emergence and spread of the Early Paleolithic microindustry in Eurasia is a complex phenomenon that requires special study. The discovery of new and further exploration of already known locations with microindustry will be crucial to solving this problem. The discovery and study of the Darvagchai site on the western coast of the Caspian Sea in 2004-2005 gives us confidence in the possibility of identifying locations with microindustry in Eurasia, which will provide comprehensive answers to some of the problems posed in this article.

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The article was submitted to the Editorial Board on 01.11.05.

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