On October 21, 2002, an inter-institute seminar dedicated to the 175th anniversary of the Battle of Navarino was held. The meeting was opened by Deputy Chairman of the Board. Director of the Institute of Information Technology of the Russian Academy of Sciences A. Z. Egorin. In his welcoming speech, he noted that the complete defeat of the Turkish-Egyptian fleet in the Battle of Navarino on October 20, 1827, was a consequence of the coincidence of the goals of the eastern policy of Russia, England and France - the great powers of the first third of the XIX century.

The historical background and one of the main reasons for this naval battle between the Anglo-Russian-French fleet and the Turkish-Egyptian fleet were the Greek uprising against Turkish rule and the subsequent war of independence of Greece, captured by the Turks in the middle of the XV century. The data available to historians today suggest that the great powers of that time, while closely observing the events in Greece, assessed what was happening in different ways, seeking to extract certain benefits from the situation primarily in their own interests, while showing hesitation and obvious competition with each other.

V. I. Gusarov (Institute of Africa of the Russian Academy of Sciences) and A.V. Shishov (Institute of Military History) made presentations at the seminar. V. I. Gusarov highlighted the historical and military-political conditions in which the anti-Turkish coalition was formed, the course of the battle and its consequences. So, on July 8, 1827, England, Russia and France signed the London treaty on the cooperation of the three powers in defense of the Greek uprising. At the same time, each of them pursued, of course, its own strategic goals, which consisted primarily in strengthening its own military-strategic positions on the Balkan Peninsula at the expense of the rapidly weakening Ottoman Empire. In the event of Turkey's refusal to accept these demands, secret articles were included in the treaty at the insistence of Russia about sending Russian, British and French squadrons to the Mediterranean. These squadrons ultimately ensured the success of the Battle of Navarino in favor of the Allies.

The victory in this battle and the subsequent conclusion of the Hadrian-Polish Peace on September 14, 1829, which ended another Russo-Turkish war, played an extremely important role in the struggle of the Greek and other Balkan peoples for their independence and state independence. The creation of independent states in the Balkans served Russia's interests and weakened the Ottoman Empire. Attempts by some European powers to use the emerging eastern crisis to undermine Russia's position in the international arena have failed.

A.V. Shishov spoke about the difference in the tactics of conducting a naval battle between the squadrons of Russia, England and France, on the one hand, and the Turkish-Egyptian fleet, on the other, as well as about Admiral L. P. Heyden (1772-1850), who commanded the Russian squadron.

It was the fundamental difference in tactics, as well as in the combat training of the crews, that allowed the Allies to destroy 55 vessels of the Turks and Egyptians, and disable the rest of their vessels.

page 155

These remaining vessels were burned on the night of October 20-21 by the Turks who landed on the beach. As a result, the entire Turkish-Egyptian fleet was completely destroyed. Losses in people for the same reasons for the parties were almost incomparable. Among the Turks and Egyptians, they amounted to about 7 thousand; Russians were killed 59, 198 wounded; the British-75 killed, 272 wounded; the French were killed-43, 187 wounded.

After the Battle of Navarino, some Turkish supporters claimed that the battle was a treacherous Allied attack on the Turks, but the recorded facts indicate that the Turkish fleets and coastal batteries were in full combat readiness.

For the victory in the Battle of Navarino, L. P. Heyden was promoted to Vice Admiral with the award of the Order of St. George, 2nd class. England awarded the Russian naval commander with the Order of the Bath of the 2nd degree, France-the Order of St. Louis of the 1st degree, Greece - the Order of Salvation of the 1st degree.

The battleship "Azov", the main hero of the Battle of Navarino, was awarded the St. George aft flag and pennant for the first time in the history of the Russian Navy.

The name of Admiral L. P. Heyden was recorded not only in the history of the Russian Navy, but also on the geographical map of the World Ocean. The name of the naval commander is given to a coral island in the Radak group of the Pacific Marshall Islands (in Micronesia, now Likiep Island), a bay in Bristol Bay off the coast of Russian America (Alaska, now Port Hayden Bay) and a mountain on the Kamchatka Peninsula.

After the presentations, a lively discussion took place at the round table. Of the questions discussed, two can be distinguished, which were raised by N. G. Kireev (IB RAS). The first one read: how did the Greek rebels manage to gather the forces and resources that allowed them to successfully resist the army and navy of the Ottoman Empire? After all, territories with a Greek population were then an integral part of the empire and his speeches were severely suppressed. The second question is: did the rebels have modern weapons and warships at that time? According to A.V. Shishov, the Greek rebels during the liberation war used their own large fleet in the fight against the Turks. Skilful sailors by nature, the Greeks made up the crews of warships, which were mainly based in Venice and Dubrovnik. They had small frigates, fast brigantines, galleys and other small sea vessels. The crews of Greek ships voluntarily joined the Russian squadrons during the Russo-Turkish wars of the first half of the XIX century. At the same time, Greek ships served as sea scouts, messenger ships, and conducted corsair actions on Turkish communications in the Aegean Sea.

During the discussion of the reports, a number of issues related to the armament and combat fleet of the Ottoman Empire and their support systems. Answering them, A.V. Shishov, in particular, said that in the wars against Russia, the weapons of the regular army and the Turkish navy did not differ much in quality from the Russian one. This was due to two reasons. First, Istanbul made significant purchases of foreign weapons-modern samples of rifles and guns of various calibers for that era. The main suppliers were France and the United Kingdom. Secondly, a lot of firearms and military supplies for them were produced in Turkey at its own military factories. For the worse, only the armament of irregular tribal, mainly mounted militias and fortress garrisons differed. The latter were equipped with numerous, but already obsolete artillery.

Summing up the meeting, A. Z. Yegorin noted that the speakers did a great job of collecting factual data about the Russian army and navy, about their noble liberation mission in the Balkans in the first third of the XIX century. Such work, which contributes to the restoration of the glorious names of Russian military leaders and naval commanders, has been carried out by them, as well as many other domestic researchers, for many years, as evidenced by their numerous already published works. The names of our great ancestors brought back from oblivion and their role in the implementation of Russia's Eastern policy in the XVIII-XIX centuries enable new generations of researchers to objectively assess the achievements of our people in the historical process.

V. I. GUSAROV

* * *

On November 13-14, the Center for Indian Studies of the Institute of Oriental Studies of the Russian Academy of Sciences held a conference "India and South Asia: Society, Politics, and the Region".

page 156

lithium". It was part of an extensive program of conferences and seminars organized by the Center in cooperation with the Embassy of India in honor of the 55th anniversary of independence of the Republic of India. At the same time, this conference had its own special occasion: the staff of the Center dedicated it to the memory of a major indologist B. I. Klyuev (1927-2000), who made a significant contribution to the study of inter - confessional, ethnolinguistic and socio - political problems of independent India * .

The conference was opened by R. B. Rybakov, Director of the Institute of Information Technology of the Russian Academy of Sciences, and Mr. K. Raghunath, Ambassador Extraordinary and Plenipotentiary of the Republic of India to the Russian Federation. A total of 19 reports were presented at the conference, which were divided into four main sections.

The first block included reports that examined theoretical aspects of interfaith, interethnic, and socio - political processes taking place in modern India. At the same time, considerable attention was paid to Indian democracy, the mechanisms of conflict resolution developed by it, and the interaction of various social forces. F. N. Yurlov's summary report "Democracy in India: Achievements and challenges" set the tone for the discussion of this issue, after which M. A. Pleshova in her report "Local Government Reforms in India" showed the operation of democratic institutions at the initial, deep level of the social structure. If F. N. Yurlov and M. A. Pleshova focused their attention mainly on the positive experience of functioning of Indian democracy, then in the report "Conversion to another religion as a form of social protest of Dalits" E. S. Yurlova showed the reverse side of this process on the example of former untouchables The Dalits, who, despite all the benefits provided by the state, do not manage to fully protect themselves from caste oppression under the modern democratic system and therefore have to resort to such an ambiguous method of self-defense as mass conversion to another religion.

The second and most numerous block of reports was devoted to conflicts in the field of interfaith and interethnic relations. "Anatomy of an inter-communal conflict" is the subject of a report by A. A. Kutsenko, who showed the whole process of "maturing" of the conflict between representatives of two religions that had a centuries - old tradition of peaceful coexistence and yet faced a bloody confrontation on the example of the Hindu-Muslim pogroms that recently shocked India in Gujarat. S. A. Baranov turned to the tribal insurgency in Tripura state and analyzed the ethno-confessional, social and political components of the conflict and the measures taken by the central government of India to resolve it. T. L. Shaumyan's report examined the most long - standing and formidable conflict, which has acquired an international character since its inception and is therefore even more dangerous-the Kashmir conflict, while describing the positions of its main participants in India and abroad. The participants of the conference examined the" anatomy " of various conflicts not only on the examples of recent years, but also in historical retrospect. So, V. P. Kashin made the subject of his report the infamous "Calcutta massacre" of August 16-19, 1946, which became one of the bloodiest episodes of the partition of British India, N. B. Gafurova in her report "On the situation of Muslims in India (on the example of West Bengal)" traced the history of interfaith relations on the example of a large state, and Yu.N. Panichkin (Ryazan) addressed the inter-confessional contradictions in the North-Western Border Province of British India on the eve of its independence.

The third thematic block included reports, the authors of which considered the main problems of the conference in two aspects: the reflection of inter-confessional and inter-ethnic relations in literature, philosophy, and art; the use of various elements of spiritual culture and historical heritage in modern political processes that are directly related to the sphere of inter-confessional and inter-ethnic relations. Thus, O. V. Mezentseva's report "Tolerance in Hinduism: a theoretical analysis" was devoted to the views of the creators of the classical Hindu tradition, their ability to recognize the right to exist for representatives of other views and confessions. S. N. Vorobyova's report (Samara) on the material of architecture and art of the Middle Ages analyzed the mutual influence of Hindu and Muslim aesthetic views. Two co's-

* In 2002, the Institute of Oriental Studies of the Russian Academy of Sciences published the monograph "Religion and Conflict in India", completed by B. I. Klyuev shortly before his death.

page 157

The meetings were devoted to contemporary Indian literature: N. D. Gavryushina explored the reflection of inter-confessional conflicts in Hindi prose of 1980-1990, and E. Y. Kalinnikova highlighted the work of the famous writer and public figure, Booker Prize winner Arundhati Roy, who touched upon various aspects of the socio - political life of Kerala in her novel "The God of Small Things".

In modern India, mythology and historical and cultural heritage are the most important components of the worldview of people belonging to different social strata and ethnic groups; they are actively used by various political forces to promote their ideas and influence the mass consciousness. Two aspects of this phenomenon were considered in the reports of I. P. Glushkova and E. Yu. Vanina. I. P. Glushkova's research topic is Hindu mythological symbolism, which literally permeates all the ideological content of socio-political life. E. Yu. Vanina turned to the struggle waged by various social forces in India for understanding and rethinking the historical heritage, for the right to teach history to new generations in one interpretation or another.

The conference was dedicated to Indian issues, but the organizers understood the impossibility of adequately considering the ethno-confessional and political problems of India in isolation from similar processes in other countries of the subcontinent. Therefore, the fourth set of reports on political development, ethnic and sectarian conflicts in Pakistan, Sri Lanka and Nepal fit seamlessly into the theme of the conference. Belokrenitsky's report "The political system and political culture of the Muslim countries of South Asia" proved to be a good parallel to Yurlov's report on Indian democracy and allowed us to identify common features and specific features in the political development of India and its Muslim neighbors. A. L. Safronova (MSU) analyzed the confessional factor in the Sinhalo-Tamil conflict in Sri Lanka. Two reports were devoted to Nepal. A. A. Ledkov focused his attention on the religious roots of modern Nepalese Maoism, which the scientist paradoxically described as "revolutionary conservatism". K. P. Shreshtha examined the role of religious minorities (Christians and Muslims) in the social and political life of Nepal.

In general, the conference showed how relevant the issues chosen by its organizers are. Interfaith and interethnic relations in modern South Asia are the most important core on which all socio-economic, political and cultural components of the social structure are attached, and the main "provocateur" of conflicts, from local to international. The conference revealed quite a natural interest of scientists in this topic, the desire to consider it at an interdisciplinary level (history, political science, religious studies, philology, art history), a certain expansion of the source base of research (including the increasingly active use of the Internet) and, at the same time, a number of shortcomings. The reports read at the conference were characterized by qualitative unevenness (some authors did not manage to go beyond the limits of factual description). Traditionally, the weak point of Russian indology is the regional level of research using sources in local languages (namely, it now defines the world science). As was recognized by the participants and guests of the conference, the topic of interfaith and interethnic relations in South Asia deserves constant discussion at regularly held seminars, which will help to overcome these difficulties and bring the study of the problem to a higher scientific level.

E. Y. VANINA

* * *

On December 16, 2002, the Kurd Studies Section of the Department of the Near and Middle East of the Institute of Oriental Studies of the Russian Academy of Sciences held a seminar on one of the most pressing problems of our time - the role of the Islamic factor in ethnic Kurdistan.

Opening the seminar, Deputy Director of the Institute A. Z. Yegorin stressed the importance of considering this issue in connection with the activation of radical and extremist Islamic political movements in this part of West Asia. He directed the seminar participants to find out the content of the term "terrorism" and its use in the scientific and political lexicon, to determine the place of the Kurdish factor in the current geopolitical situation in the region. A. Z. Egorin noted that these and other problems should be discussed in the context of conflict relations between Kurds and their regional opponents.

A. Z. Yegorin also stressed that the Institute of Internal Affairs of the Russian Academy of Sciences cooperates with Kurdsky-

page 158

In particular, with the Kurdish Institute in Berlin.

Zav. M. S. Lazarev, Head of the Department of Kurdish Studies, spoke about a two-week stay (together with G. I. Mirsky) in Iraqi Kurdistan in the fall of 2002. M. S. Lazarev first visited this part of Kurdistan in 1993. Since then, he noted, there have been major changes in the socio-economic and political sphere. The territory of Iraqi Kurdistan is divided into two segments (provinces), which are controlled by the leading political parties of Iraqi Kurdistan - the Patriotic Union of Kurdistan (PUK), headed by J. R. R. Tolkien. Talabani, and the Kurdistan Democratic Party (KDP) of Iraq under the leadership of Barzani. Since 1992, the Kurdish Parliament has been functioning in Iraqi Kurdistan, which is attended by deputies from all 36 Kurdish political organizations. M. S. Lazarev managed to attend the session of the Kurdish parliament, where the text of the future constitution of the Kurdish autonomy was agreed upon, and also met with J. R. R. Tolkien. Talabani and M. Barzani.

According to Lazarev, the Kurds managed to achieve some success in the economy and agricultural production. Many industrial facilities and hydroelectric power stations have been restored and rebuilt, 65% of villages have been rebuilt, and the forest area destroyed by the war is being restored. Near the borders with Syria, Iran and Turkey, there are free trade zones that give the autonomous region a considerable income.

M. S. Lazarev also spoke about numerous meetings with Iraqi Kurds: at the universities of Sulaymaniyah and Erbil, in the Sulaymaniyah Women's Federation, in the editorial offices of Kurdish newspapers, radio and television.

Acad. Armenian Academy of Sciences Sh. K. Mgoi (IV RAS), who visited Iraqi Kurdistan in early 2002, also positively assessed the achievements of the Kurds of Iraq in the period of peace building. A special role in this process, he noted, is played by the UN Oil-for-Food program. The region needs peace and stability to maintain what it has achieved. Therefore, he believes that the course adopted by the Kurdish political parties of Iraqi Kurdistan to preserve the territorial integrity and independence of Iraq is reasonable.

Opening the second part of the seminar, devoted to the problems of Islamism in modern Kurdistan, M. S. Lazarev stressed that the Kurds have long resisted the process of Islamization. Some Kurds chose to practice Yezidism and other beliefs. Yet at the beginning of the twenty-first century, the majority of the Kurdish population belonged to the main branch of Islam-Sunnis. Meanwhile, adherents of Islamic extremism have recently appeared mainly in Iraqi Kurdistan. However, they do not play a significant role in the political life of the region. He argued that the ideas of Islamism are unpopular in ethnic Kurdistan in general and in Iraqi Kurdistan in particular, referring to the failures of Islamic extremist groups in Turkish Kurdistan. At the same time, he noted that there are prerequisites for the activation of Islamists in Kurdistan. Islamic political structures that are in power in a number of countries where Kurds live (for example, in Turkey and Iran) adhere to conservative positions in their policies that are not related to attempts at systemic political changes. Therefore, it is important for the international community to fight not against Islam as such, but against its extremist manifestations.

During the discussion, several aspects of the problem under consideration were touched upon. One of them is Islamic extremism in the region. Thus, Sh. Kh. Mgoi believes that the efforts of Kurdistan Islamists at the present stage are aimed at keeping the Kurdish national movement gaining strength within the framework of Islamist attitudes. In Southern Kurdistan, an outpost of the Kurdish National movement, Islamists are trying to prevent the autonomy of this part of Kurdistan. To achieve this goal, a number of forms and methods of struggle are used - religious, political, interethnic strife and, finally, terror. M. A. Gasratyan (IB RAS) touched on the same topic, but based on the Turkish material. He noted that in the 1920s-the period of Kemal Ataturk's democratic reforms - Islam was established in Turkey as the state religion. In 1928, this article was removed, in 1936, the principle of laicism was adopted, and the use of religion in political interests was prohibited. This led to the politicization of Islam in Turkey, which resulted in the emergence of some political parties with a clear Islamic orientation. By opinion According to Rasul Bashir (YVES RAN), the spread of Islam in ethnic Kurdistan has caused social and cultural stagnation. Secular laws did not reflect the national interests of the Kurds, contradicted Sharia law and led to discrimination-

page 159

the contradiction between political Islam and nationalism.

The official representative of the PUK in Russia and Europe, Shorsh Said, somewhat clarified this issue. He said that the 1978-1979 revolution in Iran served as an impetus for the aggravation of not only Kurdish, but also Muslim nationalism in Iraqi Kurdistan. As a result of this process, a Muslim movement emerged among Iraqi Kurds, which operated legally, had its own media outlets, and received financial support from political Kurdish organizations. Muslim organizations are also represented in the Kurdish government. However, positive cooperation between secular and religious political forces is hindered by the activities of Islamic extremist groups that undertake terrorist actions against the PUK and KDP of Iraq. At the same time, the speaker noted, Kurds do not participate in Islamic extremist organizations. Olga Zhigalina (Institute of Islamic Studies of the Russian Academy of Sciences) stressed that the Union of Kurdish Muslims is active in Iraqi Kurdistan.

The seminar focused on the content of the term "terrorism". Thus, M. S. Lazarev defines the content of this term only as "intimidation by violence". K. V. Vertyaev (IB RAS) elaborated on this concept. Then he analyzed the activities of one of the Hezbollah territorial organizations operating in Eastern Anatolia. According to him, the Turkish authorities, depending on the political situation, allow or prohibit the activities of Islamic extremist groups. A similar line is followed by Tehran, which, according to O. I. Zhigalina, does not interfere with the activities of the extremist organization Junud al-Islam ("Warriors of Islam") on the territory of Iraq controlled by the PUK. According to their political interests, Baghdad and Tehran had contacts with Ansar al-Islam (Followers of Islam). At the same time, in the interests of resolving the issues of the future political structure of Iraq and the fate of the Kurdish autonomy, the leaders of the leading Kurdish organizations, M. Barzani and J. Abramovich, are working together. Talabani allow the possibility of contact with some Islamic opposition groups in certain political conditions.

The role of the ethnic factor in the Islamic and nationalist ideological and political confrontation was also considered. In particular, the issue of the Kurds ' relations with the Arabs, the Arab world and theocratic regimes was discussed. The majority of the seminar participants agreed that the secular nature of Kurdish political organizations does not prevent them from maintaining normal relations with Muslim organizations in Iraq itself and in neighboring countries. O. I. Zhigalina, for example, spoke about the contacts of J. R. R. Tolkien and others. Talabani and M. Barzani with some leading figures of Iran.

G. I. Starchenkov, N. Z. Mosaki, A. Mgoi and others took part in the discussion on these issues. The seminar was attended by the official representative of the KDP of Iraq Babakr Hoshavi. Summing up the results of the seminar, M. S. Lazarev stressed that in the worsening crisis in West Asia, the Kurdish and Islamic factors are becoming increasingly relevant. The crisis can lead to serious changes in the entire Middle East region.

O. I. ZHIGALINA

* * *

INSTITUTE OF AFRICA, RUSSIAN ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

On December 10, 2002, a round table was held to mark the 60th anniversary of the Allied Operation Torch in North Africa. Employees of institutes of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow State University, Moscow State Regional University, war veterans, representatives of the Russian Foreign Ministry, as well as mass media participated in its work.

The meeting was opened by the head of the Department. Center for Historical, National and Cultural Studies of the A. B. Letnev Institute of Africa. He suggested several thematic blocks for discussion: prerequisites, goals, consequences of Operation Torch, its place in the strategy of the anti-Hitler coalition and its impact on the military and political situation in the Axis countries; reaction to the emergence of an allied foothold in North Africa in the Afro - Arab world; Operation Torch in modern historiography.

The place and significance of Operation Torch in World War II is still a source of concern.

page 160

disputes. Some historians interpret it as insignificant, others as significant, and still others ignore the role of the African theater of operations (hereinafter referred to as the Theater of Operations), since there, in comparison with other theaters, not so significant a number of troops and equipment were involved. A. B. Letnev expressed the hope that the participants of the meeting would be able to clarify a number of issues: the participation of Soviet prisoners of war in the ranks of the Wehrmacht in the African theater and in the allied armies; the impact of military operations in the northern region of the continent on Tropical and Southern Africa; the reaction of Arabs and Africans.

M. Y. Frenkel (Institute of Africa) reported that Africa's participation in the Second World War has three aspects. These are the actual combat operations, their socio-economic consequences and the strategic role of Africa in this war. In his opinion, Russian historians underestimate the role of Africa in the war. So, we still have no answer to the questions about whether operations in North Africa are a "replacement" for the second front, and why the Allies refused to open a second front in Europe, and undertook Operation Torch? What was the position of England and the United States, how did they assess the importance of the African Theater of Operations? After the defeat at Dunkirk, Great Britain developed a new strategy - to defend the British Isles and defend Suez and Gibraltar, and then concentrate in North Africa and from there launch an offensive against Germany. This strategy is called "tightening the hoop". The Americans, on the other hand, had already developed a "Germany First"strategy before entering the war. Among the most important strategic plans of Germany was a plan to strike Gibraltar (via Spain) and West Africa in order to turn Dakar into a base for its submarines and establish control over the Atlantic. Thus, the three major Powers attached exceptional importance to Africa and assigned it an important strategic role.

Having considered the issue of material and technical support for Operation Fakel, A.V. Pritvorov (Institute of Africa) noted the great contribution of American shipbuilding to its successful implementation. Several hundred ships with a total tonnage of 1 million tons were involved in the operation. Its success was largely due to the well-coordinated work of the rear, especially industry. For example, if in 1938 only 25 new ships were built in the United States, then by the end of 1944 - 4500 with a total displacement of 45 million tons. Ships were built in American shipyards in an average of 25-27 days. A major role in this was played by the law of 1917 "On trade with the enemy". However, this US law was repeatedly ignored during the war. Some American banks financed US enemies through the Basel-based Bank for International Settlements (BIS), while industrial companies supplied them with scarce raw materials. Initially, the BIS was engaged in collecting reparations from Germany for the First World War, then "restructured" part of them to reproduce the German military machine. The Reichsbank's only known contribution to the BIS in 1944 was $ 378 million in gold seized from concentration camp prisoners. In France, the occupation and collaborationist authorities were served by branches of some American banks. According to A.V. It cannot be ruled out that the Vichy French forces in North Africa therefore offered almost no resistance to the Allies when they landed in Morocco and Algeria.

V. P. Smirnov (MSU) noted, in particular, that the primary task of Great Britain and the United States was not to help the Soviet Union, not to defeat nazi Germany, but to win with a minimum of forces and with maximum results. And from this point of view, the landing of Anglo-American troops in Africa had huge advantages, primarily because there was only a weakly armed Vichy army there, and then it went over to the Allies. As a result of Operation Torch, the Allies almost completely captured the Mediterranean Sea. North and West Africa, opening the way for the invasion of Italy, the Balkans, and France. The total losses of the Italian-German troops in Libya and Tunisia amounted to about 300 thousand people. Britain and the United States diverted only 10-15 divisions. From the point of view of the USSR, the result was small, but from the point of view of England and the United States - very tangible, since about 15 divisions (100 thousand people) fought in this theater, and the losses were relatively insignificant.

A. Z. Yegorin (IB RAS) spoke about the participation of Soviet prisoners of war in Rommel's army, where they were used in the construction of fortifications. These facts are hushed up to this day. Continuing the topic of prisoners of war, V. V. Belyakov (Institute of Internal Affairs of the Russian Academy of Sciences) and S. S. Novikov (Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Russian Federation) considered the question of whether Soviet prisoners of war directly participated in combat operations on the side of the Allies. Fate

page 161

A. M. Pegushev (IVI RAS) dedicated his speech to Italian prisoners of war. The British colonial administration, he noted, considered the best solution to this issue to be their speedy repatriation or the use of prisoners as labor on plantations. B. G. Petruk (Institute of Africa) and K. Y. Boehm (Moscow Region University) presented their reports on the impact of the Battle of Stalingrad on Operation Torch.

G. M. Sidorova (Institute of Africa) spoke about the participation of African soldiers in Operation Torch. Based on new works of military historians, she highlighted individual episodes of combat interaction between Africans and the allies during Operation Torch. Detachments of the French colonial army, in particular the Senegalese riflemen, also took part in the operation. At the beginning of the war, she said, the US military leadership clearly underestimated the Africans. However, the situation has changed over time. It turned out that in battle, Africans were not inferior to Europeans and were often an example of courage and heroism. When the fighting moved to the European continent, Eisenhower was already convinced of the feasibility of creating African divisions. G. M. Sidorova also touched upon such a little-explored subject as the perception of the war by Africans themselves.

When talking about Operation Torch and the Mediterranean Theater of Operations, military historians usually note the exceptional importance of several key positions. For the Italo - German bloc, this was Sicily, while for the Allies, the strategic triangle Gibraltar-Malta-Alexandria played a special role.

V. I. Gusarov (Institute of Africa) spoke about the importance of Malta from the point of view of the most important operations in the Mediterranean, especially naval and air operations. At the beginning of the war, Malta was a British colony. After fascist Italy entered the war on June 10, 1940 on the side of Hitler's Germany, Malta found itself in the center of hostilities that unfolded in the Mediterranean Sea and in the territories of neighboring countries. In the plans of Germany and Italy to capture North Africa, due to its geographical location, it was supposed to become a base for them to transfer troops and equipment to Africa. To reinforce the bombing of Malta, Hitler sent one of the Luftwaffe divisions to Sicily to help the Italian air force. As a result of massive enemy air raids and the destruction of an Allied convoy delivering weapons, food and drinking water to Malta, a catastrophic situation has developed there. However, thanks to British military assistance, it survived, did not capitulate. For their courageous resistance to the enemy and their heroism and bravery, the Maltese people were awarded the Order of St. George's Cross, the highest award of Great Britain, by King George VI on April 15, 1942.

At the end of the meeting, the participants focused on the role of Operation Torch in the strategy of the anti-Hitler coalition. E. L. Glushchenko (Institute of Africa) spoke about the very complex relations within the allied camp on the eve and after the "Torch", about the risk and cost of this operation. In his opinion, W. Churchill, the initiator of Operation Torch, convinced I. Stalin that it could replace the second front in Europe. Churchill managed to persuade Roosevelt to cancel the landing of the Anglo-American Allies in northern France. American generals were outraged by this, as they believed that the moment for the landing of Allied troops in France in 1942 was well chosen: most of the Wehrmacht-258 out of 333 divisions - was pinned down by Soviet troops on the Eastern Front. There were only a few combat-ready German divisions in France, Holland, and Belgium, and the United States was able to create a significant preponderance of forces in the European Theater of Operations. By refusing to open a second front in Europe, in the summer of 1942, Britain and the United States took, according to General Marshall, a "terrible risk", since the situation of the Red Army was very difficult. When planning Operation Torch, Churchill was primarily concerned with protecting the interests of the British Empire. The opening of the second front by the Allies, according to E. A. Glushchenko, was not so much in favor of Stalin as in favor of Hitler. As a result, Soviet troops were stopped on the Elbe. If the second front had been opened in 1942 or 1943, they would have been able to stop Stalin at least on the Vistula, i.e., not "give" half of Europe to him. In this case, the cold war might not have happened, or its intensity would not have lasted so long. Stalin would not have had a convenient springboard for an attack on Western Europe.

V. P. Smirnov and M. Yu. Frenkel disagreed with certain provisions of E. A. Glushchenko. The first expressed bewilderment: if the second front was created not so much against Hitler as against Stalin, then the question arises who was the winner in the Second One

page 162

a world war? M. Yu. Frenkel, cited Roosevelt's statements relating to 1942 and confirming the firm position of the United States at that time regarding the need to open a second front in Europe.

V. A. Subbotin (Institute of Africa) spoke about the supply of weapons and food by the United States to the Soviet Union on the basis of lend-lease.

In conclusion, A. B. Letnev noted that recently more and more publications devoted to the topic of military operations in North Africa have appeared in different countries of the world. Among Russian researchers, he mentioned R. G. Landa (Institute of Physics and Technology of the Russian Academy of Sciences), Yu.V. Lukonin, V. V. Belyakov, A. Z. Egorin, and V. P. Khokhlov (Institute of Africa). Thanks to the efforts of V. P. Khokhlova, in 2002 a list of 100 of our compatriots who fought and died in those regions during the war years was published. Earlier, she also published the first extensive bibliography in our country, Africa in World War II, containing sections on Operation Torch and the Battle of El Alamein. The search continues.

V. I. GUSAROV, G. M. SIDOROVA

* * *

NUSANTARA SOCIETY

At the Malay-Indonesian readings held on December 19, 2002 at the Nusantara Center, A. A. Shilin, who two months ago brilliantly defended his dissertation on the political development of modern Indonesia at the MGIMO University of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Russian Federation, spoke. He began his report "Indonesia after Suharto "with an analysis of the balance of political forces in Indonesia in the last years of the" new order " under the leadership of President Suharto. The speaker then reviewed the events that followed the collapse of the regime and the kaleidoscopic change of offices of Habibi-Abdurrahman Wahid-Megawati. As for the activities of the current government under the leadership of the daughter of the first President of Indonesia, Megawati Sukarnoputri, the speaker believes that the key to the most effective public administration in Indonesia at the present stage will be to find optimal forms of interaction between the civilian authorities and the military leadership. At the same time, he believes that if the situation in the country develops according to a critical scenario - whether due to the escalation of ethno-religious conflicts and separatist tendencies, economic shocks or acute contradictions between various groups of the political elite, the military may take extraordinary actions, the specific form of which will be determined by many objective and subjective factors.

T. V. DOROFEEVA

* * *

SAINT PETERSBURG SAINT PETERSBURG STATE UNIVERSITY

On July 29, 2002, an International scientific Symposium was held dedicated to the 150th anniversary of the birth of Lee Bomjin, a prominent Korean state political and public figure, Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary of Korea to Russia in 1900-1905. The symposium was organized by the Korea Sector of the Institute of History of the Russian Academy of Sciences with the assistance of Park Chung-soo and Chung Ki-hong, advisers of the Embassy of the Republic of Korea in the Russian Federation, and the All-Russian Association of Koreans. Representatives of the Diplomatic Academy of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Russian Federation and St. Petersburg State University participated in its work.

By the beginning of the symposium, the collective work "Lee Bomjin", consisting of two sections, was published. The first one contains a brief overview of the history of Korea in the late 19th and early 20th centuries and biographical articles. Their authors are scientists of the Institute of Internal Affairs of the Russian Academy of Sciences-Yu. V. Vanin, B. D. Pak, B. B. Pak, as well as direct descendants of Lee Bomjin: Li Wijon's granddaughter-L. V. Efimova and her daughter Yu. E. Piskulova. The second section includes archival documents and materials about the life and activities of Lee Bomjin and his son and fellow graduate student.-

page 163

the magical activities of Lee Wijon (and Vladimir Sergeevich) and related episodes from the history of Korea and its relations with Russia. This is the first work of Russian Korean scholars about the life and activities of a Korean diplomat of the early 20th century.It is published in the series "Russian Koreans", published by the All-Russian Association of Koreans, whose president is V. I. Tso.

The following events were timed to coincide with the symposium: the unveiling of a memorial plaque on the house where the Korean Embassy was located from 1901 to 1905, and a memorial-monument to Lee Bomjin in the Northern Cemetery. B. B. Pak made great efforts to find these memorable places.

The symposium was the first significant event in the history of both domestic and international Korean studies. It was attended by representatives of the centers of Korean studies in Moscow and St. Petersburg, foreign scientists, Ambassador of the Republic of Korea to Moscow Chong Tae-ik, President of the All-Russian Association of Koreans V. I. Tso, President of the Joint Council of the Advisory Commission of the Committee for the Peaceful Unification of Korea in Russia, Eastern Europe and Central Asia M. N. Han, descendants of Lee Bomjin In Russia and the Republic of Korea, the participants of the Russian - Korean Friendship Express are scientists, university students of the Republic of Korea and Russia, media workers, and representatives of the Korean public in St. Petersburg.

Dean of the Faculty of Oriental Studies of St. Petersburg State University I. M. Steblin-Kamensky, Minister of Patriot and Veteran Affairs of the Republic of Korea Lee Jae - dal, Ambassador Chong Tae-ik, Lee Bomjin's great-great-granddaughter L. V. Efimova and his great-great-grandson Lee Won Gap addressed the conference participants with welcoming speeches.

B. D. Park described Lee Bomjin's diplomatic activities from July 3, 1900, when he was appointed Korean envoy to Russia, to the establishment of the Japanese protectorate in Korea (1905), after which he became a political emigrant. The report highlights Lee Bomjin's attempts to step up Russia's efforts to ensure Korean independence and Emperor Gojong's security in the face of Japan's growing claims to the Korean peninsula, as well as his efforts to strengthen friendly relations between Korea and Russia and increase the latter's role in the international affairs of the Korean state. The complex international situation on the eve of the Russian-Japanese military conflict was described.

The audience was very interested in the report of Professor Park Hwang of Suwon University of the Republic of Korea "Lee Bomjin and the national liberation movement among Koreans of Primorsky Krai". He noted that Lee Bomjin is widely known primarily for leading the rescue of the royal family in 1896 from Japanese invaders. His activities as a member of the national liberation movement are less studied. Park Hwang cited such little-known facts as Lee Bomjin's plans, after the death of Korean representative Lee Chun in The Hague in 1907, to raise an uprising in Korea in order to expel the Japanese and restore the country's sovereignty with the help of Russia and Russian Koreans. In her report "The Last Days of Lee Bomjin's Life", B. B. Park showed how sympathetically the Russian public received the news of the tragic death of the Korean diplomat. The report details the final days of Lee Bomjin's life. The controversial report "Lee Bomjin-Lee Gichun - Lee Vijong" by Yoon Byung - hee (Institute for the Study of Korean National History in the Republic of Korea) attempts to study Korean and Japanese sources regarding the genealogy of Lee Bomjin and his sons.

Lee Minwon, a researcher at the same institute, in his report "Wang Kojong's visit to the Russian Mission: a new view on Russian-Korean relations " expressed a different assessment of the Korean Wang Kojong's stay in the Russian mission in 1896-1897 and the role of Lee Bomjin in these events than is generally accepted in South Korean and more closely related to Russian historiography. V. F. Li (Dipl. acad. In his report titled "The Worthy Son of Korea, Lee Pom-chin (Lee Bomjin) and His Time," the Russian Foreign Ministry said that Lee Bomjin (along with prominent Russian diplomat Konstantin Weber) was at the origin of Russian-Korean relations, and suggested that documents and materials on Lee Bomjin's activities in Russia should be published jointly in Korean, Russian, and Korean. and English.

Kim Yong-un, Deputy Chairman of the Korean Federal National Cultural Autonomy, in his report "Lee Pom-chin and the origins of the May Day Independence Movement" , spoke about the importance of Lee Bom-jin's support for the Uiben group in Russian Primorye and other Korean independence fighters, and the impact of Lee Bom's ideas and patriotic activities-

page 164

Jin on the Korean Declaration of Independence of November 1918 and February 1919.

The conference participants were attracted by the report of V. I. Denisov (MGIMO of the Russian Foreign Ministry) "Korean policy of Russia: a look from the past to the future". He noted the significant contribution of Russian and Korean diplomats to the development of good relations between the two countries, first of all K. I. Weber and Lee Bom-jin, and described the current stage of Russian-Korean relations. R. V. Savelyev (Institute of the Far East of the Russian Academy of Sciences) in his report "The Korean question in modern international Relations" outlined his understanding of the reasons for the country's split due to the international situation that developed after World War II, pointing out the trend of gradual withdrawal from large-scale confrontation that emerged by the end of the last century, and gave an assessment of Russian-Korean relations today. The audience was particularly interested in the report of Yu. E. Piskulova (Intern. Center for Korean Studies at Moscow State University) "Lee Wijon (and Vladimir Sergeevich) - Korean prince and red commander", in which she traced the life of her great-grandfather, trying to clarify the "white spots" in his life and activities up to August 1919 S. O. Kurbanov (Center for Korean Language and Culture of St. Petersburg State University) in his report "Perception of Korea in Russian scientific and popular science literature of the XIX - XX centuries" considered the features of works about Korea published in Russia during this period. Yu. V. Vanin's report "Lee Bomjin and his time" describes the socio-economic and political situation in Korea in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, and shows the struggle in Korean society over the prospects for Korea's development.

In conclusion, M. N. Khan stressed that the symposium contributed to the creative enrichment of scientists, the exchange of views of its participants on topical issues, and the discussion that unfolded revealed different points of view and different methodological approaches.

B. B. PAK

* * *

On November 25-27, 2002, the Second All-Russian School of Young Africanists was held, organized by the Department of African Studies of the Eastern Faculty of St. Petersburg State University. In addition to St. Petersburg African studies students, postgraduates and employees of various departments of the Faculty of Oriental Studies and other faculties of the University participated in the round table. Department of Ethnography of the Peoples of Africa of the Museum of Anthropology and Ethnography (Kunstkamera) of the Russian Academy of Sciences, the Library of the Academy of Sciences, students and postgraduates of the ISAA at Moscow State University, other faculties of Moscow State University, the Institute of Africa of the Russian Academy of Sciences, representatives of the Center for Civilizational and Regional Studies of the Russian Academy of Sciences, and the Peoples ' Friendship University of Russia participated. Institute of Linguistics of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Yaroslavl State University.

The meeting was held in the form of four round tables. The opening of the conference was attended by the Dean of the Faculty of Oriental Studies, corresponding member. Russian Academy of Sciences I. M. Steblin-Kamensky, Head of the Department of African Studies at St. Petersburg State University, Deputy Chairman of the Scientific Council on African Problems A. A. Zhukov, Head of the Department of African Studies at St. Petersburg State University. Department of Tropical Africa of the Institute of African Studies of the Russian Academy of Sciences Yu. N. Vinokurov, Head of the Department of African Studies of the ISAA at Moscow State University N. V. Gromova, Head of the Department of Asian and African Countries of the Committee for External Relations of the St. Petersburg City Administration R. N. Krasavtsev, General Secretary of the Association of African Students in Moscow Petrus Indongo, General Secretary of the public organization "African Unity" Deffo Desiree, Director of the Museum of World Culture of the Peoples ' Friendship University of Russia B. V. Meshcheryakov, E. D. Khilov (St. Petersburg State University), representatives of Russian and African business circles-D. Y. Kistev, Issa Togo and others. Greetings of the Director of the Institute of Africa of the Russian Academy of Sciences, corresponding member were read out. Russian Academy of Sciences A. M. Vasiliev, Rector of the Peoples ' Friendship University of Russia D. P. Bilibin and others.

Interesting discussions arose around the topic of the round table" St. Petersburg in Africa. Africa in St. Petersburg. Russia's cooperation with African countries". They recalled little-known facts from history - the sea expedition equipped by Peter I in December 1723 to the coast of Africa, M. V. Lomonosov's interest in African languages, the creation of the first centers for the study of Africa in the country in St. Petersburg, etc. A number of speeches were devoted to cooperation with Africa in the 1960s-1980s and in recent years. This was discussed by representatives of the business circles of Russia and Africa - firms and companies engaged in foreign economic activity.

The round table "Russian-African relations in the context of globalization" addressed the very relevant topic "Africa-the stepdaughter of globalization". Proposed by A. M. Vasiliev at one time, this topic is constantly in the field of view of the Fatherland.-

page 165

scientists. The Round Table also paid attention to it: "The Factor of US-Russian relations "(M. L. Vishnevsky, Institute of Africa), "Investments from the Middle East in the Ethiopian economy in the period after the War with Eritrea (1998-2001)" ( A. A. Maslov, A. A. Rudnitskaya, St. Petersburg State University), "Privatization of national Armies in Africa: alternatives to devaluation of sovereignty" ( E. A. Amosov, St. Petersburg) and others.

The round table "Studying the history and cultures of the peoples of Africa" prevailed in terms of the number of reports. Analysis of the diaries of an outstanding traveler in Africa in the middle of the XIX century. Heinrich Barth as an important source for the study of socio-economic relations among West African peoples was presented in four reports by students of the ISAA at Moscow State University K. Achkasova, A. L. Geveling, S. L. Emelyanov, S. N. Chadkova. A. E. Cherdyntseva (St. Petersburg State University) presented her observations and conclusions in her report "Interrelation of the physical and sacred space" based on the results of her work in Cote d'Ivoire. The report of A. V. Zaitsev (Center for Civilizational and Regional Studies of the Russian Academy of Sciences)" African-American music and problems of identity of African-Americans in the USA in the XX century " caused an interesting and lively discussion.

Reports and presentations at the round table "Languages and Literatures" were distinguished by a high scientific level. They presented descriptions of some elements of the grammatical structure of individual languages (including poorly studied ones), analysis of samples of oral tradition, and creativity of modern writers.

In general, including the plenary session, 65 people made presentations, reports and comments.

In conclusion, we note that in recent years a new generation of Africanists has come to science, who not only continue the traditions, but also take a new look at the fundamental and especially applied directions of the development of African studies. Young researchers are still interested in theoretical issues:

V. V. Ilyanin (St. Petersburg State University) "Africa after the end of the Cold War: some problems of African states in the new economic and political situation", R. A. Kananykhin (Yaroslavl State University)" Interaction of East and West Civilizations: an axial international problem of the XXI century", Yu. E. Galyamina (Institute of Linguistics of the Russian Academy of Sciences) 'Transitive, intransitive, labial, and neuter verbs in Songhai", etc.

Due to insufficient state funding for research projects of Russian scientists in Africa and in foreign centers of African studies, domestic researchers are forced to use various grants and scholarships. Thus, two linguistic expeditions to Ivory Coast were organized in 2001-2002 as part of a joint project of the Department of African Studies of St. Petersburg State University and the University of Zurich (led by V. F. Vydrin and T. Boart).

Russian-African cooperation has been gradually reviving over the past few years. In this regard, it is the intellectual support of Russian interests in Africa that should become the main mission of the new generation of Russian Africanists, continuing the work of their predecessors.

A. A. ZHUKOV

* * *

beijing

The second international Conference on Malay Studies was held on October 8-15, 2002 (the first one was held in 1996). It was timed to coincide with the 80th anniversary of the oldest teaching institution in Malaysia-the Sultan Idris Pedagogical Institute, which was founded in 1922, recently received the status of a university and is now known by the abbreviation UPSI.

The conference was organized by UPSI and the Institute of Language and Literature of Malaysia on the Malaysian side, and Peking University on the Chinese side. The theme of the conference was defined as "Mala studies in the context of universal civilization" and included reports on almost all aspects: language, literature, culture, religion, art, history, economy, education, communication, mass media. According to the conference secretariat, a total of 166 reports were submitted, published in two volumes. The first volume includes 82 reports on religion, culture, economics, management, geography, legislation and jurisprudence.-

page 166

education, psychology, adat and art. The second volume includes mainly philological reports on language, literature, stylistics, folklore, and media technology. A number of reports were not included in the collections of materials, and they were distributed as separate photocopies.

During the plenary session, four main reports (three from Malaysia and one from China) were read out, which were devoted to a retrospective of Sino-Malay relations dating back to the XI century, the history of Malay language learning in China, the success of the language policy for the development of the state language in Malaysia, and the role of Malay as a means of international communication. In addition to the plenary sessions, the work of the conference was held in nine sessions, rather than in sections, which is explained by the breadth of the topic and the inability to form thematic sections in this regard. Despite the fact that the conference was held in China, the vast majority of speakers were from various universities and research centers in Malaysia. From the Chinese side, three professors from Peking University made presentations.

The international status of the conference was given by researchers from Singapore, Indonesia, Brunei, Thailand, South Korea, as well as Australia, Great Britain and Russia.

T. V. DOROFEEVA

* * *

DELHI

On January 31-February 1, 2003, the conference "International Terrorism and Religious Extremism-Challenges of Central and South Asia" was held. It was organized by the Calcutta-based Maulana Abul Kalam Azad Institute for Asian Studies, which is celebrating the 10th anniversary of its establishment. For the anniversary, the Institute has prepared an English translation and publication of the letters of A. K. Azad, a prominent figure in the liberation movement in India, one of the leaders of the Indian National Congress. The foreword to the book was written by Indian Prime Minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee.

The President of the Institute, a well-known Indian scientist Divendra Kaushik, opening the conference, emphasized the relevance of Kalam Azad's ideas in our days. The main part of the 28 reports heard at the conference was devoted to finding out the causes and consequences of the phenomena of intolerance and extremism in the world, the significance of their research for the security of Central and South Asia. In addition to the staff of the Maulana A. K. Azad Institute, the conference was attended by scientists from the J. Nehru University of Delhi and other institutions, as well as representatives of academic and university science from Russia, China, Tajikistan, Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan and Kazakhstan.

The first part of the conference included reports on general issues of terrorism and the global situation in the midst of events related to the crisis around Iraq. The second part included reports on the situation in the new States of Central Asia, and the third-in the region of South Asia and at the junction of two neighboring regions.

Deputy Director of the Institute of Africa of the Russian Academy of Sciences V. G. Shubin, speaking on the role of Russia in the fight against international terrorism, stressed that it is based on the search for solutions acceptable to the entire international community and is based on coordinated actions approved by the UN. He noted that genuine democracy does not contribute to the emergence of conditions that cause terrorist actions.

One of the leading Indian scholars, S. D. Muni, in a report on global terrorism and "strategic equations" in Asia, drew attention to the connection between the policy of the United States and its allies to combat terrorism and security threats emanating from "rogue countries", primarily Iraq, and the increased importance of Asia in world politics. The growth of the national income of Asian states, according to him, can lead to the fact that in 2025 they will account for 57% of total world income. In addition, Asia contains the main reserves of energy resources of the planet. The fight against terrorism, for all its real nature, is, in the speaker's opinion, deliberately linked to the broader plans of the United States to strengthen hegemony in the world, consolidate direct and indirect control over Asia, and intervene in crisis situations in all more or less significant countries, such as Nepal, Myanmar, and Sri Lanka, neighboring India.

In the report "The Religious Roots of terrorism in Central Asia", the director is a researcher-

page 167

At the Sharq Islamic Center in Dushanbe, M. Olimov stressed that religion itself is not related to terrorism, but is used for its ideological justification. Moreover, the main reason explaining the spread of extremist sentiments is the dissatisfaction of the masses with social and economic living conditions. Extremism and terrorism, the Tajik scientist stressed, are the" wrong " response of society to the problem situation. At the same time, the seeds of radical religious philosophy and practice of action introduced from outside fall on the fertile ground of such "problematics". Carriers of the latter in modern Central Asia are primarily the Hezb-ut-Tahrir-al-Islami party and other organizations.

In a number of reports by experts from Central Asia, the topic of combating terrorism was considered from different angles : its legal justification (F. Tohirov from Tajikistan), blocking the financial support of terrorists, and assessing the role of forces "entrenched" in Afghanistan ( L. Muzaparova and A. Shamanov from Kazakhstan). Yan Shu, a lecturer at Lanzhou University (China), devoted his report to the geopolitical role of Afghanistan as a "buffer state" and, in the recent past, the main base of terrorism in the center of Asia. The report of F. Tishebayev (Uzbekistan) emphasized the importance of political, economic and cultural ties between the regions of Central and South Asia in the light of new realities and challenges in the fight against international terrorism. The speaker drew attention to the still insufficiently high level of contacts and considerable prospects, especially with regard to relations between the Central Asian states and India.

Among the reports on South Asia, the hard-edged speech of Calcutta Professor S. K. Ray stood out for its harsh tone. To the usual public opinion accusations in India of Pakistan's encouragement and support of Kashmiri insurgents, he added harsh remarks about Bangladesh, calling the state "terrorist in spirit and actions" and pointed out the deplorable situation of the Hindu minority in it. Reflecting, apparently, the realities of the internal political struggle in West Bengal, he also accused the state government, which has been continuously led by Communist Party of Bangladesh (Marxist) Communists for a third of a century, of encouraging the migration of Bangladeshis to the state and manipulating their votes in elections. Analyzing the situation in Kashmir, he called on India to pursue a "limited offensive policy", in particular to eliminate extremist training camps located in the territory controlled by Pakistan.

T. Basu, a retired central government official and director of a research center in Chennai (Madras), took an equally strong position. In his report "International terrorism and its Implications for India", he tried to prove that Islamic terrorism in India cannot be dealt with without defeating the underground network created by the Pakistani Inter-Service Intelligence (ISI). Calling for increased pressure on this organization and its agents and the implementation of "active defense" tactics, he noted that he remains in the minority on this issue.

This was to some extent confirmed by the speech of retired Major General A. Karim, who stressed that religious extremism grows on the basis of socio-economic disadvantage. The speaker also noted that local attempts to combat extremism and terrorism are insufficient, and global coordination is necessary for success.

K. Prabha (Bombay) considered the ideological aspect of the phenomenon of terrorism. She tried to prove that terrorism threatens the secular nature of States in South Asia. Initially, secularism was inherent in both India and Pakistan. But after the death of the latter's "founding father", M. A. Jinnah, secular ideology began to give way to Islamic ideology. As a result, the ideological differences between the two neighbors have deepened so much that they serve as the main reason for irreconcilable relations. K. Prabha stressed that the rejection of secularism as a principle of modern statehood leads to the strengthening of the position of religious radicalism. Moreover, this phenomenon, which has engulfed Pakistan, has contributed to a similar process in India. As an example, she cited the activities of the Hindu radical organizations Bajrang Dal and Vishwa Hindu Parishad, expressing concern that the entire South Asian subcontinent is threatened with a deepening split along religious divides and a dangerous rejection of the principles of secularism and religious tolerance.

Zav. In his report "Islamic Radicalism in Pakistan - Evolution and Regional Role", V. Ya. Belokrenitsky, Head of the Department of Near and Middle East Countries of the Institute of Political Sciences of the Russian Academy of Sciences, highlighted the main stages of strengthening radical Islamism in Pakistan.-

page 168

political ideology and relevant political groups and organizations. A milestone in the development of Islamic radicalism is the reign of General M. Zia-ul-Haq, who pursued a policy of Islamization and promotion of jihad in Afghanistan. The speaker noted that since Islamabad joined the anti-terrorist coalition, there have been some positive changes in its policy towards Islamists and there are opportunities to take them into account in the context of Indian-Pakistani relations.

In his report "Religious Extremism and Terrorism in Kashmir", J. Nehru University Professor K. Variku focused on the subversive activities of terrorist groups entering the Indian state of Jammu and Kashmir from Pakistan. He pointed out the Islamist nature of the guerrilla war in Kashmir, singling out Hezb-ul-Mujahedin, Harkat-ul-Ansar and Lashkar-e-Toiba groups as its main organizers during the 1990s, and stressed that all of them are ideologically and organizationally linked to the leading force of Pakistani fundamentalism K. Variku did not find any changes in Islamabad's policy in Kashmir after September 11, 2001 and the defeat of the Taliban, and called for a coordinated international effort, based on the UN Charter, to combat cross-border terrorism.

Also noteworthy is the report of Professor A. Patnaik of the same University, devoted to the role of India in Central Asia after the elimination of the Taliban rule in Afghanistan. He noted that India has reason not to fully trust Washington's regional policy, as it tends not to notice threats to its national security coming from Pakistan. India's relations with Central Asian countries may significantly strengthen in the future, which will be facilitated by broad regional cooperation with the participation of Iran, Afghanistan, etc. At the same time, as suggested by A. Patnaik, India's strategy should not be purely "Pakistan-centric" and overly active. India needs to ensure its presence in Central Asia, expand trade and economic cooperation with the countries of the region as much as possible, without getting involved in "strategic games" initiated by other states.

In conclusion, it should be noted that much attention was paid to the conference by the official circles of India. Suffice it to say that the opening ceremony was attended by three state ministers of the Federal Cabinet, one of the meetings was led by a retired police official known for his activities in Punjab, K. P. S. Gill, and the closing ceremony was addressed by Government Secretary D. Kumar.

Permanent link to this publication: