In the 70s and 90s of the 19th century, the division of Africa, the problem of Egypt, and the Middle East question came to the fore in international politics. During this period, British tactics in the Far Eastern region are changing: military methods of pressure are being replaced by reconnaissance expeditions, the number of which is sharply increasing. The article discusses the reasons for the British expeditions, their nature and results. The main source of research is the reports of the Royal Geographical Society1 and the Royal Asiatic Society2.

By the 70s of the XIX century. Unequal treaties were imposed on China, which resulted in the opening of a number of ports to foreign trade. But foreign trade in several ports did not lead to the" opening " of the entire country. The interior of China remained virtually inaccessible to foreigners. To enter there, it was necessary to have special permits, which were not so easy to obtain. In addition, British merchants were faced with the fact that the Chinese population preferred local goods to British ones. Economists of the time considered "China's self-sufficiency to be the most formidable barrier that England had encountered in the entire history of (its) industrial and commercial expansion" (Sargent, 1907, p.225). In 1882, the British Consul in Chungking, Oxnam, wrote that " foreign trade in China is stagnating. The main reason is that a huge mass of the population does not buy manufactured goods... our cotton products do not suit the Chinese, as they wear out too quickly. Local clothing is cheaper, stronger and more reliable" [The Economist..., 1884, p. 12].

The increase in the number of British expeditions sent to China in the 70s and 90s was explained by a number of reasons. The mid-70s - mid-80s of the 19th century were a period of economic depression in Europe, which the United Kingdom did not escape. British entrepreneurs were interested in new markets, and domestic China was one of them.

In the 70s - 80s of the XIX century, England had serious competitors in the Far East in the face of France, Germany and Russia, whose attention to China increased. They start exploring China, exploring internal trade routes, and exploring the location of strategically important objects. England could not but pay attention to their actions and was forced to take measures to preserve its influence

1 The Royal Geographical Society was founded in 1830 in London under the name Geographical Club of London on the basis of the Association for the Exploration of the Interior of Africa (1788), the Raleigh Travellers ' Club (1827) and the Palestine Association. The company received its name in 1857. In the XIX century. It has conducted research in British Guiana, Australia, Africa, and the Arctic. However, its meetings often included reports on expeditions to the Far East [The New..., 1975, p. 700].

2 The Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland was established in 1823.

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in the Far Eastern region. T. H. S. Ascot, a journalist and editor of the British Fortnightly Review, wrote worriedly in 1884: "We find ourselves in a new situation: international relations, the responsibilities and responsibilities imposed on us by the empire, the role that we should and can play in world politics have changed since the death of Palmerston, the great European powers are armed in such a way that they are that England is not able to compete with them; control over European politics is in the hands of Germany "[Escott, 1884, pp. 705-707]. Under these circumstances, it became necessary to make accurate maps, describe the natural features of the Qing Empire, study local languages, compile dictionaries, etc. All of this required field research.

The British government was interested not only in promoting English goods to the Chinese market, but mainly in spreading English economic and political influence throughout the country, for which it was necessary to know this country well. The experience of the "opium wars" has shown insufficient effectiveness only of military operations in China. And scouting expeditions to inner China and the surrounding areas could help in finding new ways to increase influence over the Qing Empire.

Expeditions were expensive due to the natural conditions, lack of roads, hostile attitude of the local population and the likelihood of robber attacks. In 1883, Tseng Chije3 noted that Englishmen traveling in the interior of China often had difficulties due to obstacles caused by representatives of the local administration (Tseng Chitse, 1883, p. 992).

British expeditions to China can be divided into two categories.

First, these were expeditions that were supposed to investigate the possibility of extending the influence of England to the areas adjacent to China. L. A. Wadell, who led the British military expedition to Lhasa in 1904, formulated the official point of view regarding relations with countries on the borders of British India: "... (our. - M. B.) the policy for a long time has been to ensure the emergence of a number of semi - independent states along our borders as a buffer between us and neighboring countries, enjoying self-government in internal affairs, but having sufficient freedom so that, in the event of an invasion, they would be useful (for England. - M. B.). These states should be under our suzerainty (since we guarantee their autonomy) and be open to trade" [Cit. by: Prazauskas, 1980, p. 38].

Secondly, these are expeditions to the depths of China. Their nature and routes depended on whether they were organized by the British Government, chambers of commerce, or individual entrepreneurs interested in establishing trade relations with certain areas of China.

Most of the expeditions were formally scientific in nature. But the study of the flora and fauna of the Middle Kingdom often served only as a screen covering the true goals and objectives of missions. In the 70s and 90s of the 19th century, the British undertook more than thirty expeditions to China and neighboring areas.

EXPEDITIONS TO THE INTERIOR OF CHINA AND BURMA

During the study period, several British expeditions were undertaken to the interior of China.

January-August 1871 Thomson traveled along the Yangtze River to Sichuan to explore the Hankou-Yichang route. The purpose of the expedition was to

3 Zeng Jijie (1839-1890), the eldest son of Zeng Guofan (1811-1872), a prominent Qing official, was China's envoy to Great Britain and France from 1878 to 1885.

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study the possibility of navigation in the upper reaches of the Yangtze River in narrow gorges above Chongqing.

In 1873, the British consular agent at the Burmese court in Mandalay proposed to organize an exploration mission from Mandalay via Bhamo and on to Momein, in Dali in Yunnan Province. The proposal was approved by the Chief Commissioner of British Burma in connection with the intensification of French actions in the Mekong River area. The military topographic expedition led by Colonel H. A. Brown consisted of about 200 well-armed men. The British envoy in Beijing, T. Wade, was instructed to obtain passports from the Chinese government and send an experienced interpreter to help the expedition. It was A. Margery, a 29-year-old British consular employee. He was to proceed up the Yangtze River and meet the mission at the Sino-Burmese border. On January 17, 1875, Margery arrived in the Burmese border town of Bhamo. In February 1875, the expedition moved to the Burmese-Chinese border, but was stopped by armed men. Margery went off with six men to negotiate. The outcome of the negotiations was positive. However, on the way back, February 21, 1875. he was ambushed and killed in a shootout.

Margery's death was the occasion for England to make demands on China. The result was the conclusion of the Chifu Convention on September 13, 1876, according to which China agreed to pay 2 million liang (yuan) in silver, sent an embassy to England to apologize, and developed trade rules on the border of Burma and Yunnan. British representatives were allowed to monitor trade in Dali and other cities in Yunnan for five years. The cities of Yichang, Wuhu, Wenzhou, and Beihai became open ports; England could send a consular agent to Chongqing. Foreign ships were allowed to enter six cities on the Yangtze River. An additional chapter of the convention dealt with Tibet: the British could send missions from China to Tibet and India.

In the 1980s, Great Britain's attention to southwest China increased due to the outbreak of the Franco-Chinese War of 1883-1885. This threatened England with the loss of influence in the southern provinces (Yunnan and Sichuan) and control over trade routes from these provinces to Burma. In 1882, the Royal Geographical Society published Baber, an adviser to the British Embassy in Beijing, entitled "Voyages and Explorations of Western China", which described his expedition to Sichuan and Yunnan. Baber wrote that the development of the internal market of these provinces would open up enormous opportunities for British traders [Palgrave, 1883, p. 493-501]. However, he noted the obstacles to developing these areas: the unwillingness of Chinese officials in Sichuan to cooperate in the development of coal mines; the lack of human resources in western Sichuan, where rich metal deposits were located; the difficulty of the 500-mile route from Bamo to Chengdu, the center of Sichuan Province, where floods and landslides often occurred, and the road was crossed by rapid mountain rivers.

A year later (in February 1883), at the initiative of the British government, an expedition led by the British agent in Chongqing, A. Jose, was sent from the southern part of Sichuan Province to Dali (Yunnan Province). Jose's report stated that the area was unsuitable for agricultural development, and cholera was rampant in the summer. Jose also noted hostility from the local population to foreigners. This is how Jose defined the purpose of the expedition: "Visit new markets and understand how these markets can best be developed. This idea drives every traveler to the eastern and southeastern provinces of China. Sichuan is the most important of them" [Proceedings..., vol. VIII, 1886, p. 371]. Jose wondered why the signing of the Chifu Convention did not lead to an increase in British trade with China. Response to

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He saw this issue in the unwillingness of English traders to take risks in Chinese territory west of Yichang. Previously, English merchants transported goods from Yichang to Chongqing by boat, and the route took from one to two months. No one has guaranteed that nothing will happen to the product in two months. Traders were unwilling to go where the Chinese had never even seen foreigners before, where the routes were still unknown and full of danger [Proceedings..., vol. VIII, 1886, p. 371 - 384].

In December 1885, a new expedition led by Bernet was sent from Beijing to Yunnan [Proceedings..., vol. VIII, 1886, p. 216 - 217]. In 1892, A. I. Pratt made a trip up the Yangtze River to Sichuan Province [Proceedings..., vol. XIII, 1891, p. 232 - 249].

In the mid-80s of the 19th century, the British began exploring the eastern coast of China. The increased interest in this area was due to the fact that France was conducting military operations in China at that time, and the French occupied the port of Fuzhou. At the initiative of the British government, several reconnaissance expeditions were organized, led by the British Consul I. H. Parker. The first expedition set off on January 29, 1883, from Fuzhou via Fujian Province to Wenzhou. The second expedition was sent on November 11, 1883 from Wenzhou to Zhejiang. According to the report, the region had "everything necessary for the development of foreign trade" [Journal..., 1885, p. 17-52]. There was no hostility from the local population; most of the houses located there were well-to-do. Parker noted that pawnshops and loan shops were in the hands of immigrants from Anhui province, sugar, dates, fruit were in the hands of Fujians, and ceramics were sold by Jiangxi people. The local population practically did not wear Western clothing. Zhejiang Province was provided with everything but coal, iron, and opium, of which the last two articles accounted for almost half of its imports [Journal..., vol. XIX, 1885, p. 34 - 38]. On January 11, 1884, Parker made his third trip from Wenzhou to Fujian. Regarding the sale of opium in Fujian province, he noted that the latter is sold, but in very small quantities [Journal..., vol. XIX, 1885, p. 58]. Parker described the villages in detail, noting that this could be useful information for travelers in the future.

In 1887, the British consul I. L. Oxnam traveled along the Yellow River to Chongqing [Proceedings..., vol. X, 1888, p. 519].

Special attention was paid in the 80s of the XIX century. England gave the area of Upper Burma and the route from there to southwestern China. A former colonial administration official in British Burma, Calhoun, and an engineer in the Public Works Department in India, X. Hallett in 1882 made a trip from Canton to Rangoon. After his return, Calhoun sent a proposal to the British Chambers of Commerce to explore the area in order to resolve the issue of building a railway connecting Rangoon with southwestern China through the Shan states. His proposal met with the approval of the Chambers. According to preliminary estimates, the cost of the study was 7 thousand f. st., of which half were to be paid by the Chambers of commerce, and the remaining half - by the government [The Times, 9.02.1883, p. 8].

At the end of 1884, Hallett and Calhoun received 3.5 thousand pounds from the Chambers of Commerce to study the possibility of building a railway.4 The partners collected significant information related to climate, population, minerals, etc. They paid special5, the size of which, in their opinion, depends on-

4 The Manchester Chamber of Commerce gave the sum of £ 393, £ 600 to the London and Glasgow Chambers of Commerce, £ 500 to the Rangoon Chamber of Commerce, £ 100 to the Singapore Chamber of Commerce, and £ 300 to the Hong Kong Chamber of Commerce.

5 Lijin - Domestic customs duty in China.

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lo promotion of English goods to China. It is the difficulty of settling the Lijing issue that largely explains the interest of British merchants in building railways that would avoid paying duties when transporting goods to the interior of China. Calhoun telegraphed the progress of the expedition to the Times, which published his reports.

It should be noted that the development of foreign trade was hindered by the lack of transport infrastructure in China. 6 British attempts to start building railways in China, Burma, and the Shan States were not successful. The money invested by British entrepreneurs in the study of the possibility of railway construction was lost. The Chinese government believed that the construction of railways would be carried out only by the hands of the Chinese themselves (Kent, 1907, pp. 1-8). British trade circles have repeatedly appealed to their government to regulate the granting of concessions at the interstate level for the development of Chinese coal and other deposits, as well as for the construction of railways. The first step to solving this problem was considered by British entrepreneurs to be the revision of previously concluded agreements between England and China.

Hallett and Calhoun returned to England in the spring of 1885 to seek support for their plan to organize a railroad company. At a meeting of the Royal Geographical Society on November 16, 1885, Hallett made a report on the possibility of a railway between Burma and China, noting how important it was for England to "open up and develop... trade with Southwest China " [Proceedings..., vol. XIII, 1891, p. 1 - 20]. The company adopted a resolution submitted to the Government, which approved the construction of the railway and estimated the cost of it at 1 million pounds. st.

In May-June 1890, the British Vice-Consul W. D. Archer traveled from Chengtong in Laos to Chiang Mai. The purpose of the expedition was to establish friendly and commercial relations with the administration and trade circles of Yunnan province, drawing up a map of the area [Proceedings..., vol. XL, 1889, p. 242].

A number of expeditions were undertaken to Manchuria. The researchers were primarily interested in how local residents would meet British merchants, how friendly their relations with neighboring Russia were, and what their attitude towards foreigners in general was. In September 1885, Colonel D. Younghusband and Fulford traveled to southern and eastern Manchuria. After leaving northern Manchuria, the researchers traveled to previously unexplored areas, crossed the Petunia and Sungari Rivers. In his account of his journey, Younghusband described an efficient system of soda and salt production by the Manchus [7] [Proceedings..., vol. IX, 1887, p. 235 - 247]. In 1887, another expedition was organized to this area under the leadership of Yanghazband [Proceedings..., vol. X, 1888, p. 485 - 519].

At the same time, an expedition led by H. I. James, an employee of the Bombay Civil Service, went to Manchuria. In his report, James noted that according to the data that he was able to get from the reports of British consuls and missionaries, the population of Manchuria is 12-13 million people. The territory of Manchuria significantly exceeded the territory of the Austrian Empire and Great Britain. The only favorable months for trading were August, September and October, as the rest of the time it snows almost every day. Manchuria is rich in mineral fertilizers, iron, gold, silver, coal, and coniferous wood-

6 Back in 1863, 27 foreign companies submitted a petition to Li Hongzhang asking him to start building an 80 km long railway from Shanghai to Suzhou, but they were refused.

7 According to his descriptions, soda was extracted from lakes. The water taken from them was boiled in iron cauldrons, at the bottom of which soda was collected, forming a layer 9 to 10 inches thick.

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com. James also gave a brief tour of the history of Manchuria, focusing on the role that the Manchus played in the history of China [Proceedings..., vol. IX, 1887, p. 531 - 568].

In June 1887, an expedition headed by Captain Durant, Captain M. Smith, D. Robertson, and F. I. Younghusband left Manchuria for Kashgaria. At the same time, a military expedition led by Colonel S. Bell set off, the route of which lay through the provinces of Shanxi and Shaanxi. The entire route took 113 days. On the way, the two expeditions joined forces [Proceedings..., vol. XII, 1890, p. 57-60].

OTHER EXPEDITIONS

British traders expressed the hope that Tibet and the countries bordering it (Nepal, Sikkim, Bhutan) they will eventually become a market for British fabrics.

Sikkim was located between Nepal and Bhutan, and in the north it had a border with Tibet. Britain was interested in maintaining peace on the borders of Bhutan, Nepal, Sikkim, and Tibet. During the period of internal troubles of the first half of the XIX century. England helped Sikkim regain some of its territory. This gave it an advantage in this area over other European countries. An Englishman, A. Campbell, was appointed Superintendent of Sikkim.

One of the most significant expeditions to Sikkim was the mission of K. Mcauley8 in 1886. In 1885, he received permission from Tsungli Yamen9the basis of the 1876 convention, organized an armed detachment of 300 people and intended to cross the border with Tibet in Jemsiong, but met resistance from the Tibetans. McAuley's mission was sent to Sikkim, near the border of Tibet, to find out the reasons for rumors spread by Tibetan officials about the decline of trade through Darjeeling, as well as the possibility of opening a direct link with Tibet. In addition, the mission was supposed to establish relations with the local administration of Tibet and convey a friendly message to the colonial administration of India. McAuley was well received and gathered information concerning the trade between Tibet and India. By order of the British Foreign Office, he visited Beijing and received permission from the Chinese government to stay in Lhasa for three months to establish contacts with the Chinese resident and local government in Tibet, as well as to study the possibility of free trade of Indian merchants in Tibet and their safe movement through Sikkim and Darjeeling.

In 1886, the mission was sent under the protection of a small detachment to protect the gifts it was carrying. Under a treaty with China, it crossed the southeastern border of then-annexed Upper Burma. But the Tibetan authorities were ambivalent about the expedition's entry into its territory and decided that the mission should stop its advance. To show their intentions, they sent a military detachment to occupy Lingtu Peak. Tibetans blocked the passageway to the gorge with stones, blocking the road. They have stated their intention to stop any trade on this route between Tibet and India. The Tibetans held the passage to Lingta and refused to negotiate with the British.

In March-September 1888, a British military mission led by General Graham was sent to the Lingtu region. Its purpose was to restore the status quo of England in Sikkim, to protect it and Bhutan from possible interference by Tibet. In August, General Graham marched into Sikkim with a force of two thousand men. September 24th

8 Financial Adviser to the Colonial Administration of Bengal.

9 Analogous to the Ministry of Foreign Affairs in Qing China. Established in January 1861, it consisted of five departments responsible for relations with England, France, Russia, the United States, as well as Prussia, Belgium, Denmark, Peru, Portugal, Italy, Sweden, and Norway.

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he received a report that the Tibetans were four miles from the English camp and had built a stone fortress there. Graham was badly wounded, but the Tibetans were routed, and the remnants of their troops fled to Bhutan.

According to the Anglo-Chinese Convention of 1886, China recognized British sovereignty over Burma, but England refused to appoint an envoy to Tibet. In 1890, at the request of Great Britain, the Qing government appointed a representative to settle the situation in Tibet. On March 17, 1890, the Convention on Sikkim was concluded in Calcutta, establishing the protectorate of Great Britain over this principality [The Gazetteer of Sikkim, 1894, p. 15-21]. These two agreements, in addition to demarcating the border between Tibet and Sikkim, included an article under which England had the right to trade with Tibet.

At a meeting of the Royal Geographical Society on January 18, 1886, a report was read on D. Scott's trip to Tonkin, which took place at the end of 1885. The report gave a detailed description of the geographical features of Tonkin, its river system, settlements, climate, etc. Attention was paid to Tonkin's place in British trade in the Far East. Scott noted that Tonkin is not rich in minerals, gold, silver or tin, which were expected by English entrepreneurs [Proceedings..., vol. VIII, 1886, p. 217 - 245].

In 1890, A. R. Agasiz traveled from Tonkin to Canton. In his report to the Royal Geographical Society, he described in detail the military fortifications of Tonkin. In 1891, an expedition led by Lord Lamington traveled through the Shan States to Tonkin. She also visited Siam and Chiang Mai [Proceedings..., vol. XIII, 1891, p. 701]. In 1888, an expedition led by S. I. U. Stringer was undertaken to Laos [Proceedings..., vol. X, 1888, p. 134].

During the period under review, the British undertook several expeditions to the island. Taiwan (Formosa), which were ethnographic in nature. At a meeting of the Royal Geographical Society in 1889, Mr. Taylor, an employee of the Chinese Maritime Customs, read a report on one of them. The speaker noted the hostility of the local population towards travelers. The tribes that inhabited Taiwan were very different from the mainland Chinese, who drove the aborigines out of the fertile land. Even on the southern and eastern coasts of Formosa, where irrigation canals were difficult to build, the Chinese cultivated their fields. Those aboriginals who resisted were pushed into the mountains.

According to Taylor's description, the land to the west of Formosa was flat. The north of the island was covered with hills, on which tea plantations were located. In the east of Formosa, it rained heavily for eight months of the year, and almost the entire island, with the exception of cultivated areas, was covered with dense forest. The island was rich in coal, iron, sulfur, oil, copper, gold, rubies, and amber. Taylor believed that the indigenous population was of Malay origin, as evidenced by their character, language and habits. These tribes were not united under a single ruler. Taylor divides them into four groups. The first is the Paiwan, the hunter warriors who are the most warlike compared to the rest of the aborigines. The second is Zhibeni, which is apparently of Japanese origin. They have a lower status on the island than the first group. Their main occupation was farming. The Chinese viewed them as the most submissive people in Taiwan. The third group - amei, from Taylor's point of view, is the most interesting. The natives of other groups did not consider the Amei to be their own people and even considered them as descendants of the Spanish shipwrecked crew who were allowed to live on the island. The fourth group of aborigines, the Pingpu, occupied a middle position between the Chinese and Aborigines [Proceedings..., vol. XI, 1889, p. 224 - 243].

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The penetration of Western powers into the interior of China, which was triggered by the Franco-Chinese military conflict of 1883-1885, which opened the door to southwestern China, was the second stage of the "opening" of China after the "opium" wars. In 1884, a Times reporter noted that " after 16 years, we are in a different position than during the last war with China. Since 1868, travelers Cooper, Margery, Richthofen, Garnier, Dupius, Gil, Baber, Szechenyi, Nei Elias began exploring inner China. Much remains to be done. However, the interior of China is no longer unknown to us. China is no longer a mystery, as it was in 1857" [The Times, 05.08.1884].

Faced with a number of problems in the Qing Empire, England realized the need to study China and its society, form a pro-Western stratum, and create mechanisms to influence China's politics and economy. To complete these tasks, it was necessary to send research expeditions to study the internal trade routes and the location of strategically important objects in China.

During the expeditions, mineral exploration was carried out in the Chinese provinces, attempts were made to understand whether it was possible to find potential buyers of British goods and cheap labor there. Great Britain was faced with the task of studying what the interior of China is like, how to build its relations with the local Chinese administration in order to spread its influence in China and its neighboring areas at a time when they will finally be open to all European powers and England will have to fight to maintain its position in the Far Eastern region.

list of literature

Prazauskas A. Sikkim: The 22nd State of India, Moscow, 1980.
The Economist, Weekly Commercial Times, Banker's Gazette and Railmen Monitor: a Political, Literary and General Newspaper. 14.03.1884.

Escott T.H.S. England's Foreign Policy // The Fortnightly Review. Vol. XXXV. June. 1884.

The Gazetteer of Sikkim. Calcutta, 1894.

Journal of the China Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society. Vol. XIX. Shanghai, 1885.

Kent P.H. Railway Enterprise in China. An Account of Its Origin and Development. L., 1907.

The New Volumes of the Encyclopedia Britannica Constituting in Combination with the Existing Volumes of the Ninth Edition. Vol. XXXVII. L., MCMII.

Palgrave W.G. Trade Routes to China and French Occupation of Tonquin // The Quarterly Review. Vol. 156. July-October. 1883.

Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society and Monthly Record of Geography. L.

Sargent A.J. Anglo-Chinese Commerce and Diplomacy. Oxford, 1907.

The Times. L.

Tseng Chitse (Calles Chinese Minister to England and France). Extracts from the Diary of the Marguis Tseng // The Nineteenth Century Review. Vol. XIV. Dec. 1883.

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