The question of the origin of religion (s) has always been a concern of mankind - at least, since then, when the formulation of this problem became possible in principle. If we talk about the European tradition, then pre-Socratics have already begun to ask about the source of religious ideas (here it is enough to recall, for example, Xenophanes from the Colophon or Democritus from Abder). Sometimes thinking about this topic has led to attempts to compare different religious traditions, usually either to better understand one's own religion, or to discover some common elements or principles underlying any religious beliefs. Many ancient thinkers were convinced that there is a single, in a sense - "natural", religion, which, however, takes different forms in different countries and in different historical epochs. This idea can be illustrated in the following words of Sextus Empiricus: "All people have an idea of them [i.e., the gods], but not the same. The Persians, for example, deify fire, the Egyptians-water, and among other peoples - each something similar... [But] all men have a general idea of God, according to which he is a living being, blissful, incorruptible, and perfect in bliss, who accepts no evil. " 1
In addition, Greco-Roman Antiquity was fully aware that different religious traditions can borrow certain elements from each other: in such a way that one can be - in some respects - the source of the other. Thus, the" father of history " Herodotus discovered the origins of Greek religion and mythology.-

1. Sextus Empiricus. Sochineniya [Works], Moscow, 1975, Vol. 1, p. 249.

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logies in the religion of the Egyptians, identifying Zeus and Amon, Dionysus and Osiris, Ptah and Hephaestus, etc. According to him, "almost all the names of the Hellenic gods come from Egypt", and, in addition, the Greeks borrowed many religious customs from the Egyptians.2 Of course, we will not find in Antiquity a comparative analysis of religions in the spirit of Max Muller, but, nevertheless, it should be recognized that the idea that different religious traditions can contain something in common, as well as the idea of the existence of genetic links between religions, were familiar to ancient thinkers.

The next step was taken by Christian authors: they began to classify religious traditions. These classifications (usually carried out within the framework of treatises on heresies), of course, were not yet of a scientific nature. So, for example, quite often they were reduced to the dichotomy "religion of the true God" / "religion of false gods" and were based not so much on empirical material as on information gleaned from Christian sacred texts.3 In addition, it can be noted that the conduct of such classifications was not due to the desire to achieve scientific truth, but to the need to conduct polemics with non-believers and carry out missionary activities among them. Therefore, the interest of Christian theologians in other religions and Christian heresies proper was not constant (it increased in situations where the above-mentioned need arose, and practically disappeared in more peaceful times for the Church), and the research of alien religious traditions did not differ in particular depth. 4
Against this background, the study of religions undertaken by Roger Bacon (1214/22 - c. 1292) in the mid-thirteenth century seems very original and unexpected. To begin with, Bacon's starting point for a" comparative analysis " of religious traditions is to formulate the principles of his own religion.

2. Herodotus. Istoriya [History], L., 1972, p. 96.

3. In this respect, the idea of a "barbaric religion" may be significant, which, according to John of Damascus, "continued from the days of Adam to the tenth generation, until the time of Noah" (John of Damascus. Source of Knowledge, St. Petersburg, 2006, p. 77).

4. However, it should be noted that some Christian theologians came to quite interesting (and quite correct) conclusions, for example, about the connection of certain Christian heresies with Eastern religious traditions and ancient philosophy ("Hellenic heresies", as defined by John of Damascus).

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a kind of" natural religion " (i.e., a certain minimum of religious beliefs, which, in his opinion, is found in all peoples). According to Bacon, all people have an innate knowledge of the existence of God, 5 although this knowledge is obscured by both original sin and individual sins6 (this is why some peoples "imagine that there are many gods, or deify the stars or things of the sublunary world"7). Further, all people worship God (or gods) according to the way they imagine Him (them). Another principle of the "natural religion" is the belief in the immortality of the soul: "All religious teachings (sectae) inspire hope for another life"8. Finally, and this is not a very typical conclusion for a medieval Christian theologian, Bacon asserts that all peoples believe that their religions are based on divine revelation: "Everyone believes that they received their teachings (sectae) through revelation... After all, anyone who offers his teaching refers to divine authority, so that he is more believed. " 9
These propositions of this" natural religion " form a kind of coordinate system, within which Bacon classifies religions, first, secundum diversitates finium (i.e., according to what a particular religion considers as the goal (meaning) of human existence), and, secondly, secundum usum gentium (i.e., according to what a particular religion considers to be the goal (meaning) of human existence). e. according to the different religious traditions of different peoples 10). Bacon also suggests a third classification: secundum viam astronomiae (i.e., according to how the heavenly bodies can influence the adherence of a particular people to a particular faith); however, this classification is not so much related to "natural religion" as to medieval astrological concepts.

5. "The knowledge of God - that He exists - is inherent in [people] by nature" (The Opus Maius of Roger Bacon / Ed. Bridges J. H. Oxford, 1879-1900, Vol. 2. P. 375).

6. "The natural knowledge of God that every man has is weak, and the sins that every man has weaken it even more: for sin darkens the soul, especially as regards the divine" (Ibid.).

7. Ibid. P. 376.

8. Ibid. P. 381.

9. Ibid. P. 385.

10. It should be noted that the term "natio", people, Bacon usually uses to refer not to an ethnic community, but to a community united by a religious " law "(lex), and therefore refers to Christian, Jewish, etc.peoples.

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As for the classification of secundum diversitates finium, the key to it is the difference in ideas about the afterlife, which Bacon also links with the difference in legalized social practices among different peoples. It must be said that although this connection is postulated, Bacon does not fully explain its nature.11 He begins with the fact that each human community is guided by certain laws, which can be both good and harmful - according to the goals that these laws formulate and impose on individual members of the community in the form of life guidelines. At the same time, Bacon, referring to Aristotle 12, counts four destructive goals: carnal pleasure, wealth, power and glory (they can be given in the law as a single main goal, or in a certain confusion with each other). However, in addition to the goals that the community sets for itself "here and now "(regardless of whether these goals are good or disastrous), there is another goal that, according to Bacon, any person strives for: this is the attainment of afterlife bliss. Although this goal is common to all people, ideas about it differ among different nations, for, as Bacon writes, "some consider this bliss as a bodily pleasure, others as a spiritual pleasure,and still others as both." 13
Thus, the pagan pagans (Pagani puri), to whom Bacon refers the Prussians and (geographically) related peoples, in the earthly life seek, in his opinion, carnal pleasures, wealth and honors, and therefore they desire the same for themselves in the Hereafter. That is why they "have the custom of publicly burning the dead, along with precious stones, gold, silver, servants, family, friends, and all riches and goods, hoping that they will be able to enjoy all these things after death." 14
11. In the final analysis, it is not clear what is primary - ideas about the afterlife or legalized social practices. However, it is very likely that Bacon did not consider that there is a causal relationship between the first and second, and considered them as two elements of a single religious "law".

12. Rather, Bacon uses the Averroist interpretation of Aristotle presented in Ibn Rushd's commentary on Nicomachean Ethics. In addition, he refers to Al-Farabi, in whose work one can also see one of the sources of the concept of Bacon considered here. See, for example, Al-Farabi. Philosophical treatises. Alma-Ata, 1972. pp. 323-324.

13. The Opus Maius of Roger Bacon. Vol.2. P.367.

14. Ibid. P. 369.

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The Idolatriae, by which Bacon seems to have meant Buddhists and Hindus, also love the good things of this world and also hope to find them in the Hereafter. Therefore, their "law" not only does not prohibit, but, on the contrary, encourages the accumulation of material values, and, as Bacon says, " none of the idolaters even think about spiritual benefits. "15 However, their priests practice asceticism and abstinence (here the English philosopher refers to the religious traditions of "Eastern countries located on the Eastern continent"). equator"), but they do this only in order to receive material and sensual benefits in another life.

Further, Bacon considers the "sect of the Tartars". The fact that Bacon did not consider the Tatars (or rather the Mongols) idolaters or pagans was due to the following circumstance. Bacon knew about the Mongols and their religion from the reports of Franciscan missionaries de Rubruc and de Plano Carpini, one of whom left the following testimony: "Tatars believe in God, who is recognized as the creator of all things visible and invisible, and also recognize the creator of both bliss in this world and torment, but they do not honor him with prayers or praises or any ritual... Moreover, they devoutly worship the sun, the moon, and fire, as well as water and earth, devoting to them the firstfruits of food and drink."16. This (or similar) description appears to be true (whether or not it was true) this confused Bacon, and he could not clearly identify the Tatar religion as either polytheism or monotheism, and therefore singled out it as a special "transitional" religion. However, it fit well into the general scheme of Bacon: according to him, the Tatars are obsessed with the thirst for power and power and believe that their emperor (the great khan) should be the only ruler of the whole world - just as there can be only one God in heaven.

In this scheme, Islam takes the place of a religious law "corrupted" by carnal attraction: Bacon recalls both the promise of sensual pleasures in paradise and the polygamy permitted by the Muslim religion in earthly life. In this regard, Islam (along with idolatry, paganism and the "law of the Tatars") it turns out, according to Bacon, that among the religions that-

15. Ibid.

16. De Plano Carpini I. Istoriya Mongolov [History of the Mongols], St. Petersburg, 1911, pp. 7-8.

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those who promise only earthly, material, and bodily benefits in the next life.

This is not the case with Judaism and Christianity, although there are significant differences between them. The Jewish law, Bacon believes, commands the pursuit of not only material but also spiritual goods, but only those Jews who interpret their law spiritually (spiritualiter) desire both physical and spiritual goods; the majority, on the contrary, interpret the law literally, and therefore desire only physical goods - both in this life and in the life to come. As for Christians, they, in accordance with their law, "relate spiritual things to spiritual things "(1 Corinthians 2: 13), and therefore strive for spiritual goods in earthly life (the possession of physical goods is not an end in itself: a Christian should possess only the necessary amount of them and only " because of human frailty of the flesh"). However, Bacon notes, Christians will enter the future life both spiritually and physically (although the body of the righteous after the resurrection will be a glorified body - according to the words of the apostle (1 Cor 15: 44) that "the spiritual body is sown, the spiritual body rises up").

Thus, based on the principle of difference of goals, Bacon concludes:: "I have listed the main nations that differ in the religious teachings (sectae) that are now widespread in the world, and they are as follows: pagans, idolaters, Tatars, Muslims, Jews and Christians. And there are no other significant religious teachings and will not be any more, until the emergence of the teaching of the antichrist. " 17
As for the second classification of religions, secundum usum gentium, here the basis of classification is the amount of knowledge of various peoples about God, while the religion that has the most complete knowledge is, of course, Christianity. Accordingly, paganism is at the lowest level in Bacon's scheme. The Gentiles "know the least about God, have no priests, but each of them, at his own discretion, invents (fingit) God for himself, worships what he wants, and makes sacrifices when he wants." 18 In addition, the Gentiles do not have a "law", i.e., a written set of rules relating to God. public life (including religion), and therefore

17. The Opus Maius of Roger Bacon. Vol. 2. P. 367.

18. Ibid. P. 370.

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they live exclusively according to an unwritten custom (consuetudo). Somewhat higher is idolatry: idolaters have priests and places for religious gatherings, certain prayers and sacrifices; in addition, they recognize many gods, but none of them is omnipotent. Tatars already know about the almighty God, but they still have remnants of idolatry and paganism: because they worship the heavenly bodies, fire and the threshold of the house. And in this respect, Bacon notes, the Tartars are very savage (sunt brutales multum). Even higher is Judaism, since the Jews know the most about God because of their revealed law; they also reasonably expected the Messiah (although the Jews ' rejection of Christ devalues this latter circumstance). Finally, at the top of this peculiar table of ranks is Christianity, which interprets Jewish law spiritually and therefore properly. At the same time, quite unexpectedly, if we take into account what was said earlier, Bacon did not mention Islam19, passes on to the religion of the antichrist, which is still to come and which will "temporarily overcome all other laws", except perhaps a select group of Christians (which, however, will be very small due to the persecution that will befall its adherents when the antichrist reigns).

Thus, Bacon concludes, "according to this division there are six laws (leges) - as well as according to the previous division, which was based on [the difference of aspirations] to lust, wealth, honor, power, fame, and the bliss of another life, while neglecting these temporary benefits."20
Finally, the third classification of religions, secundum viam astronomiae, as already noted above, is loosely connected with the ideas of the English philosopher about "natural religion", but it has a different meaning.-

19. It should be noted that in a parallel passage in the Opus Tertium, Bacon writes that" the peoples who differ markedly in their religious customs (ritus) are six: pagans, idolaters, Tartars, Saracens, Jews, and Christians " (Un fragment inedit de l'opustertium de Roger Bacon. Quaraccchi, 1909. P. 168). Apparently, the substitution of Islam for the " religion of the antichrist "in the Opus Maius text is explained by Bacon's hesitation in answering the question of which religions are among the main ones. These fluctuations, in turn, were probably caused by the fact that he linked the number of major religions with the number of planetary conjunctions, of which he counted six, and considered the conjunction of the Moon and Jupiter as determining the "law of antichrist".

20. The Opus Maius of Roger Bacon. Vol. 2. P. 371.

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It is directly related to medieval astrological concepts and the so-called "horoscope of religions" (as for the latter, here the main source for Bacon was the famous Arab astronomer and astrologer Abu Mashar).21. The view that the physical changes that take place on Earth are somehow caused by the movement of celestial bodies was not unusual in the Middle Ages; rather, it was the opposite. However, Bacon went much further: in his opinion, "a competent astrologer can usefully investigate many things that relate to mores, laws ,religious teachings (sectae), war and peace, etc. "22 Certain positions of the heavenly bodies" are important for wisdom and understanding, for the interpretation of dreams, for the worship of the divine soul." faith and the teaching of the law, for piety and religion, for the fear of God and morality, etc. " 23 This is why astrology is important for confirming the truth of the Christian religion, as well as for proving its strength and vitality (stabilitas).

Based on this, Bacon argued that there are six major religions in the world, corresponding to the six known planets, 24 which, in accordance with their conjunctions with Jupiter, " incline people to adopt laws either always, or in most cases, or in such a way that the law is perceived more willingly."26. And since there are exactly six planets forming conjunctions, "there can be no greater number of religious doctrines (sectae)" 27. In addition to the actual number of religions, the planets

21. Abu Mashar Ja'far ibn Muhammad ibn Umar al-Balkhi (787-886), known in the Latin West as Albumazar, put forward the idea that astrology can give predictions about the future fate of not only individuals or human communities, but also religions. According to Jean Bodin, "Albumazar was so vile that he dared to set limits for religions according to heavenly influences and claimed that the Christian religion would come to its end in 1460" (Bodin J. On the Demon-Mania of Witches. Toronto: Victoria University Press, 1995. P. 81).

22. The Opus Maius of Roger Bacon. Vol. 1. P. 251.

23. Ibid. P. 254.

24. According to medieval beliefs, there are seven planets in total: Mercury, Venus, Mars, Saturn, Jupiter, the Moon, and the Sun.

25. In astrology, "conjunction" or" conjunction " is one of the main aspects ("aspect" means an arc of a certain size connecting two elements of the horoscope (usually planets), laid along the ecliptic and measured in degrees). The conjunction implies the location of the planets in the immediate vicinity of each other (0°arc).

26. The Opus Maius of Roger Bacon. Vol. 2. P. 371.

27. Ibid.

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some of their characteristics are also determined. For example, the brutality of the Tatar "law" is explained by the influence of Mars - after all, as Bacon says, the Tatars worship fire and wage wars, and they also have no philosophy. At the same time, Bacon attributed the fact that some of the Tatars were inclined to accept Christianity to the influence of Mercury: it is thanks to him that the Tatars "allow their children to be brought up on the Gospel and the lives of their Fathers, and when they get sick, they call Christian priests with a cross and holy water." 28 Thus, according to Bacon, the religion of pagans and idolaters under the influence of Mars and the Sun 29, the religion of the Tatars-under the influence of Mars, the religion of Muslims-under the influence of Venus, the religion of Jews-Saturn, the religion of Christians-Mercury. As for the moon, Bacon associated it with the " religion of the Antichrist." It is significant that here, as in the case of the classification secundum usum gentium, he showed a certain inconsistency: in order to attribute the conjunction of the Moon and Jupiter to the "Antichrist law", he had to combine paganism and idolatry into one group (the influence of Mars and the Sun).

Curiously, Bacon did not see in this concept anything like universal determinism. In his opinion, the planets do not affect the rational soul (which "can in no way be forced to do anything" 30), but only the body, on the change of which, however, " science, morals and laws "strongly depend (multum) .31 This idea, however, looks somewhat crafty, because if the influence of the heavenly bodies inclines a person to something "either always or in most cases", then there is little room for free will, and if it inclines "in a minority" of cases, then the predictive value of astrology becomes very doubtful.

What is the general description of Bacon's study of religions? First of all, it should be noted that the goals that he pursued were purely apologetic and missionary, which could not but leave its mark

28. Ibid. P. 372.

29. Bacon is not completely clear on this point. Thus, he writes that " religious teachings (sectae) pagans and idolaters are reduced to the religion of Mars and to the Egyptian [religion], which consists in worshipping the Sun as the leader of the heavenly host "(Ibid.).

30. Ibid. P. 371.

31. Ibid.

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on the general course of his reasoning. Thus, for example, the identification of the principles of "natural religion", as well as the ranking of religions according to their proximity to Christianity, is, in the end, only a tool for achieving the main goal: to prove that Christianity is the only true religion and should be accepted by all peoples. Therefore, all the classifications presented above are not the final result of a special, so to speak, "independent" study, but the initial premises of this evidence, embedded in the general theological context. And this predetermines the obvious shortcomings of the Bacon classifications (for example, their inevitable gravitation to the too simple and pre-accepted dichotomy "religion of the true God" / "religion of false gods").

Nevertheless, it is necessary to note the following circumstance. Regardless of Bacon's goals, his study of" natural religion "as well as his attempts to classify historical religions took place within the framework of" moral philosophy", which, although close to theology, is not at all identical with it.32 On the one hand, Bacon (as already noted above) fully follows the well - known formula "philosophy is the servant of theology." However, on the other hand, when he writes that "philosophy precedes religious teaching (secta) and ends there, and also disposes to it with the help of similar truths and explores it (my italics are A. A.)"33, he paradoxically proceeds from the autonomy of philosophical knowledge and, moreover, from the fact that it is not a religious teaching, but rather a religious teaching., suggests the possibility of rational research of various religious traditions. Therefore, it is no coincidence that Bacon refers to philosophers (first of all, Aristotle )who, " reviewing the laws of various states,-

32. According to Bacon, " moral and civil science is that practical science which orders man in relation to God, to his neighbor, and to himself, and also proves [the truth of] this ordering and effectively encourages and draws us to it. And this science tells about the salvation of man through virtue and about the attainment of happiness, and it contributes to this salvation, as much as it is possible for philosophy... In the same way, only this (or mainly this) science deals with the same thing as theology, since only theology considers [man's actions towards God, towards his neighbor and towards himself, as well as the bliss and punishment after death], although in a different way, namely in relation to the faith of Christ." (Ibid. P. 223-234).

33. Un fragment inedit de l'Opus Tertium de Roger Bacon. P. 174.

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countries, as well as the purposes of these laws "34, sought to find the best "law". In this horizon, Christianity turns out to be one of the existing religions (although the only true one), and therefore can be compared and compared with them using the rational tools of philosophy.35
It is also necessary to note the rather vague, but still historicism that characterizes Bacon's study of religions. The very idea of a "horoscope of religions", according to which religions arise, develop and disappear, has not been accidentally criticized by Orthodox theologians. Despite all the unscientific, even absurd nature of such horoscopes (which, thanks to Bacon among others, became quite popular in the fourteenth century), they gradually introduced the principles of historical thinking and questioned the orthodox idea of the timelessness and immutability of religion. Thus, leaving aside the general theological orientation of Bacon's work, it is impossible not to notice that he already laid down the principles of rationalistic criticism ("criticism" - in the sense of "objective scientific research") of religion, which were later actively used by thinkers of the Enlightenment.

Finally, it is necessary to say that in some respects Bacon's study of religions looks quite modern. For example, he has a division of religions according to such factors as polytheism/monotheism, the presence/absence of the priesthood, the presence/absence of sacred texts, the presence/absence of places of public worship, etc. Speaking of the "religion of the Gentiles", Bacon quite correctly remarks that " the Gentiles worship with love what seems useful to them (for example the sun, moon, animals, trees, fire, water, etc.), and by fear they worship what frightens them."36 Or, for example, it is difficult to disagree with Bacon's statement that any religious "law" (at least, this applies to those "laws" about which they are afraid). which he mentions) It refers to the transcendent reality as the source of its legitimacy.

34. Ibid. P. 164.

35. It must be said that Bacon sometimes went very far in his rationalism. For example, he writes that only "the laws of Christ, Moses, and Mahomet" can be considered seriously, since they are best consistent with reason (sunt magis rationabiles)" (Ibid. P. 173). This is precisely the case when, so to speak, philosophy suddenly goes from being the handmaid of theology to being its judge.

36. The Opus Maius of Roger Bacon. Vol. 2, P. 372.

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Bibliography

Al-Farabi. Philosophical treatises. Alma-Ata, 1972.

Herodotus. Istoriya [History], L., 1972.

De Plana Carpini I. Istoriya Mongolov [History of the Mongols], St. Petersburg, 1911.

John of Damascus. Source of Knowledge, St. Petersburg, 2006.

Sextus Empiricus. Sochineniya [Works], Moscow, 1975, Vol. 1.

Bodin J. On the Demon-Mania of Witches. Toronto: Victoria University Press, 1995.

The Opus Maius of Roger Bacon / Ed. Bridges J. H. Oxford, 1879 - 1900, Vol. 1 - 2.

Un fragment inedit de l'Opus Tertium de Roger Bacon. Quaraccchi, 1909.

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