In India, scientific knowledge in Tibet was formed in the process of developing, studying and adapting religious doctrine. The adoption of Buddhism had a strong influence on the development of the Tibetan linguistic tradition and other areas of proto-scientific knowledge. The main source of terminology for various traditional sciences in Tibet was Sanskrit. Most of the special terms used by the Tibetan linguistic tradition are borrowed from the Sanskrit tradition and are mostly translations of terms from the Ashtadhyayi grammar (skt. Astadhyayi "Eightbook") by the Indian grammarian Panini (skt. Panini), created in the V-IV centuries BC. First of all, this applies to the terms of case grammar. This article is devoted to the analysis of the interpretation and use of case grammar terms, including those denoting the names of categories karaka (skt. karaka) by Tibetan grammarians-the authors of one of the first grammatical treatises "Sumchupa" (Tib. Sum si ra) and one of the most important commentaries in the Tibetan grammatical tradition - " Oral instructions on the work of the great scholar Situ "(tib. Mkhas mchog si tu'i zhal lung) by Ngulchu Dharmabhadra (tib. Dngul chu dharma bha dra, 1722-1851) and the "Precious Wreath of Good Sayings" by an unknown author (tib. Sum rtags gzhung mchan legs bshad nor bu'i phreng ba, XVIII-XIX centuries). The article also discusses the terms for designating service lexemes and morphemes, as well as some general scientific terms of Sanskrit origin.

Keywords: history of linguistics, Tibetan language, Tibetan linguistic tradition, Tibetan grammatical terminology.

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Which began in the seventh century. The work of translating Indian religious texts has led to the adoption of Indian models of description and terminology. However, cases of complete borrowing of Sanskrit terms are rare; most of the terms were translated into Tibetan (Snellgrove and Richardson, 1968, p. 76). Active work on the translation of Indian texts led to the formation of religious and philosophical special vocabulary. At the beginning of the ninth century, the first lists of Buddhist terminology were developed in Tibet, which included Tibetan equivalents of Sanskrit terms. Some researchers note that the accuracy of Tibetan translations and the consistency in the use of religious and philosophical terms allow us to reconstruct the lost original Sanskrit texts (Snellgrove and Richardson, 1968, p. 76).

Under the Tibetan King Chitsug Detsen (Tib. Khri gtsug Ide brtsan, 815-838), a special commission was established to edit and unify the terminology of previously made translations. Concepts that had no analogues in the Tibetan language were transmitted descriptively. What could not be adequately named was transliterated and recorded in this form. Some words of the Tibetan language, the meaning of which was suitable for conveying a concept, were assigned this single meaning, and they became terms. The edited translations were submitted for approval to the tsar, advisors, and abbots of monasteries [Bolsokhoeva et al., 1989, p. 34].

During the work of this commission, two Sanskrit-Tibetan lexicographic reference books were created: the Mahavyutpatti Dictionary (skt. Mahdvyutpatti, tib. Bye brag tu rtogs byed chen po) and a commentary on it - " Madhyavyutpatti "(Skt. Madhyavyutpatti, тиб. Bye brag tu rtogs byed chen po 'bring po, Sgra sbyor bam po gnyis pa). Mahavyutpatti contains 9565 articles grouped into 283 semantic categories, starting with the epithets of Buddha and ending with the names of diseases. Madhyavyutpatti consists of two sections (Tib. Satro), the first of which contains a commentary on 170 articles of the dictionary, and the second-on 243 articles. The order of articles in the commentary differs from that in the dictionary, and sometimes there are explanations of Sanskrit terms that are not present in Mahavyutpatti. The result of this work, therefore, was the consolidation of the norms of the new language and the unification of Tibetan terminology for various fields of scientific knowledge [Bolsokhoeva et al., 1989, p. 35].

In addition to the use of Sanskrit terms of the corresponding terminological fields, Tibetan Buddhist terminology, which is also of Indian origin, was used in works on all sciences. Thus, the main source of terminology of various traditional sciences, which are areas of protoscientific knowledge, in Tibet was Sanskrit terminology.

According to P. K. Verhagen and R. E. Miller, most of the special terms used by the Tibetan linguistic tradition are translations of terms from the grammar "Astadhyayi" (Skt. Astadhyayi "Eight Books") of the Indian grammarian Panini (skt. Panini), created in the V-IV centuries BC, and, thus, are borrowed (Tavastsherna, 2008, p. 92).

First of all, this applies to the terms of case grammar. The Tibetan term mam dbye 'case' (literally, 'division [into] types', a calque of the Sanskrit term vibhakti) is not found in one of the first Tibetan grammatical treatises "Sumchupa" (Tib. sum si ra), the authorship of which is attributed to the Tibetan adviser to King Songtsen Gampo (VII century) - Thonmi Sambhota. The grammar only indicates the relationship of various service tokens that convey subject relationships with the semantic roles that they can play.

In the commentary to Sumchupa, the term rnam dbye 'case' is used in accordance with the concept of seven cases borrowed from the Indian tradition (Miller, 1993, p.184). Following the Indian tradition, in particular Panini grammar,

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Table 1

Semantic roles in Tibetan and Indian grammars

Karaki in Panini Grammar

Semantic roles in the treatise "Sumchuia" and the commentaries "The Precious Wreath of Good sayings", "Oral instructions on the work of the great scholar Situ"

kartr 'doer'

karman; arua, kriyapya

(Chandragomin) 'object'

kara 'tool'

sapradana 'recipient'

apadana 'starting point'

adhikara 'location'

byed pa po 'doer'

las 'object'

ched 'goal'

'byung khungs 'source'

rten gnas 'place'

commentators keep numerical case designations. For example, rnam dbye gnyis pa 'second case' (Skt. dvitiya 'second [case] '(accusative)) [Gonda, 1977, p. 95].

In the Indian tradition, the category of case is related to the category of karana (Skt. karaka)1. The latter is an intermediate level between semantics and morphology. The description of these categories refers to semantics (they are defined semantically; they convey the property of participants in groups of certain situations), but they are expressed by means of morphology - in Sanskrit, these are mainly specific case suffixes 2 (morphological level) [Verhagen, 2001, p. 279]. Tibetan grammarians borrowed this system of categories from the Indians. Tibetan terms denoting semantic categories are used in the Sumchupa treatise, as well as in one of the most important commentaries in the Tibetan grammatical tradition - "Oral Instructions on the Work of the great scholar Situ" (Tib. Mkhas mchog si tu'i zhal lung) by Ngulchu Dharmabhadra (Tib. Dngul chu dharma bha dra, 1722-1851). and the comments of an unknown author "The precious wreath of good sayings" (Tib. Sum rtags gzhung mchan legs bshad nor bu'i phreng ba, XVIII/XIX centuries) (see Table 1).

P. K. Verhagen believes that in the Tibetan tradition, karakas were interpreted exclusively as semantic categories, and the term for the category of karaka itself was not borrowed by the Tibetan tradition [Verhagen, 2001, p. 292]. The statement of P. K. Verhagen is valid in relation to the treatise" Sumchupa", where a certain grammatical indicator (tib. sgra, sa) is assigned to the values transmitted by it (tib. don)3, which correspond to the category of karaka. Commentators gave an interpretation of these values (Table 2).

Semantic roles corresponding to karak categories are fixed by commentators as the values of specific cases (for example, rnam dbye gsum pa byed pa po'i sa 'the third case is an indicator of the doer'). The identification of syntactic-semantic categories of karak and the category of case in the comments is indicated by the use of terms derived from the names of semantic roles for the names of cases: las 'object' - rnam dbye gnyis pa las su bya ba 'second case-object', ched 'goal' - mam dbye bzhi pa dgos ched ' fourth case - dative', rten gnas 'place-rnam dbye bdun pa rten gnas' seventh 6-seat ' [Dngul chu dharma bha dra, 1983, p. 167-169].

It should be noted that some Tibetan authors, including the predecessors of the authors of the commentaries under consideration, distinguished between synactic-semantic categories and the category of case in the Indian tradition. For example, Lodoi Gyaltsen (tib. Blo gros rgyal mtshan), also known as Sasang Mati-pandita (Tib. Sa bzang mati pan

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Table 2

Interpretation of semantic roles in Indian and Tibetan grammars

Semantic role

Panini Grammar

Katantra Grammar

"Oral instructions on the composition of the great scholar Situ"

"Precious wreath of good sayings"

Agents

the one who is independent [is called] kartr 'doer' 4

The one who performs an action is called a doer (Verhagen, 2001, p. 281)

[function] instructions for performing an action 5

[function] instructions for the actor to perform an action 6

Patients

what the doer wants to achieve is called karman 'direct complement' 7

what is fulfilled is called a direct complement (Verhagen, 2001, p. 281)

meaning of an action performed by a public figure 8

object of an action performed by the doer 9

The tool

that which is most [involved in the action and] serves as a means [of performing the action] is [called] karana 'instrument' 10

what the actor uses to perform an action is called a tool (Verhagen, 2001, p. 281)

Recipient

the person to whom the object is intended is called sampradana 'recipient'(literal translation of the Sanskrit word sapradana: 'gift').11

the one to whom they want to give something, to whom they please, is called an indirect complement [Verhagen, 2001, p. 281]

meaning of benefiting the object of an action [performed] by an actor or an associated object 12

meaning of benefiting the immediate object of an action or an associated object 13

A source

[what] is stable when departure occurs [is called] apadana 'starting point' 14

the place from which they start, what they fear, or what they get or take something from is called the starting point (Verhagen, 2001, p. 281).

a value like separating something from an object or [value] pointing to the source 15

department value (comparison) [by] category, action, quality 16

Place

the base is [called] adhikarana 'location' 17

that which acts as a basis for action is called location (Verhagen, 2001, p. 281)

meaning of someone's reliance on something 18

meaning "based on what" or"available there" 19

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Table 3

Terms-names of service lexemes and morphemes in the treatise "Sumchupa" and commentaries

Tibetan name

Sanskrit equivalent

Service token or morpheme

slar bsdu ba 'generalization'

The term is of Tibetan origin [Verhagen, 2001, p. 222]

the final particle of the narrative sentence about (go, ngo, do, po, bo, then, 'o, go, lo, so, to)

'brel ba'i sa 'link indicator'

Sambandha [Verhagen, 2001, p. 217]

a service lexeme that expresses subject relations of a determinative nature KYi [Beyer, 1992, p. 234]

tshig rgyan 'speech decoration'

vakyalarnkara [Verhagen, 2001, p. 220]

Yang amplifying particle

sdud pa 'connection'

samuccaya, anvacaya [Verhagen, 2001, p. 220]

formant of the subordinate gerund Yang (kyang, 'ang, yang) dividing conjunction Am service tokens expressing subject connections of the original character nas and las connecting conjunction dang

lhag ma dang bcas pa 'having a sequel'

The term is of Tibetan origin [Verhagen, 2001, p. 222]

formant of the gerund STe (sle, te, de)

'byed pa 'division'

vikalpa [Verhagen, 2001, p. 220]

connecting union dang separating union Am

(') bod pa 'message'

sarnbodhana, sarnbuddhi, amantrama [Verhagen, 2001, p. 217]

kye interjection

dgar [ba'i] tshig 'separating expression'

nirdharana [Verhagen, 2001, p. 219]

excretory particle ni service tokens that express subject connections of the original nas and las nature

brnan pa'i tshig 'enhancing expression'

nirdharana, avadharana [Verhagen, 2001, p. 220]

excretory particle ni

rgyu mtshan 'the reason'

connecting union dang21

tshe skabs 'time'

kala [Verhagen, 2001, p. 217]

connecting union dang22

gdams ngag 'instruction'

formant of the imperative form of the verb dang

spyi la khyab pa 'embracing the common'

interrogative, relative, indefinite pronoun gang

bdag po'i sa 'owner's index'

formant of the nominal verb form and the word-forming morpheme ra

dgag pa'i gnas 'negative indicator'

negation prefix ta

chen, 1292-1376) in his commentary on the Katantra grammar entitled "The Perfect Light of Sanskrit - An Explanation of the Grammatical Treatise - Sutras of Kalapa" (gib. Sgra'i bstan bcos ka la pa'i mdo'i rnam bshad legs sbyar rab gsal snang ba) points out that the term las should not be used su bya ba as the name of the second case [Verhagen 2001, p. 29].

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Instrument Category (skt. kagapa, tib. byed pa) is not found in the grammar of Sumchupa and its commentaries. The word byed pa is used in comments in the sense of "action" or as a nominal form of the verb "act". The unknown author of the commentary "The Precious Wreath of Good Sayings", following the work of Situ Mahapandita, uses it as a term when describing phonetics in the sense of "articulator" 20. It can be assumed that at the time of writing the considered comments, the terminologization of the word byedpa was not completed. It should be noted that in modern Tibetan grammars, for example, in Kelsang Gyurme grammar, the term byed pa has been assigned the meaning of "tool" [Skal bzang ' gyur med, 1981, sh. 21-27].

The absence of the tool category may be due to the fact that the authors of the Sumchup grammar and the comments under consideration fixed specific syntactic and semantic roles as service lexemes or morphemes expressing subject connections. In this regard, the service lexeme expressing subject relations of the ergative nature KYIs (kyis, gis, gyis, 'is, yis,- s) is assigned a single meaning of the agent (the role of the tool is not considered), and vice versa, other grammatical means by which the agent can be expressed are not indicated. The Kelsang Gyurme grammar provides a more detailed description of service lexemes that convey subject relationships, and semantic roles that can be marked with one or different service words or not marked at all (absolutive) [Skal bzang ' gyur med, 1981, sh. 1-117].

Most of the terms used to refer to service lexemes and morphemes are borrowed from the Sanskrit grammatical tradition. In general, the terms are motivated, since they denote the function performed by the indicator. Below is a list of terms for various service lexemes and morphemes in the order they are listed in the treatise "Sumchupa" (Table 3).

The Sanskrit grammatical tradition was not the only source of linguistic terms in Tibet. The origins of terminology and models for describing the Tibetan linguistic tradition, as well as other areas of proto-scientific knowledge in Tibet, went back to Buddhist religious doctrine. In Tibetan grammatical works, as well as in works on other traditional sciences, the terminology common to all Indo-Tibetan traditional sciences, mainly of a religious and philosophical nature, was widely used. Such general scientific terms used include don 'meaning, meaning'; the juxtaposition gzhungyan lag ('main text/ main part of the text/tradition' - 'auxiliary text/ section/branch of tradition'); verbs sbyor, 'jug', etc. The same words with different meanings can be used as terms in different terminology fields. However, a polysemy of terms in different terminology fields is acceptable and does not contradict the unambiguity criterion.

Thus, the influence of Sanskrit linguistics on the formation of Tibetan grammatical terms mainly relates to case grammar and karaka categories. The difference in the composition of karaks and their interpretation in the original grammar and in the commentaries of different periods can be explained by the incompleteness of terminologization, on the one hand, and the accumulation and change of knowledge about the language, on the other.

comments

Karaka is a syntactic-semantic category that refers to an object or subject that participates in an action [Verhagcn, 2001, p.278].

2 Although Panini first uses karaki in the second chapter of Ashtadhyai, which explains the use of case endings attached to the nominal base, the case forms and karaki are not identified in Panini. Name endings are not the only way to express aspects of an action

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in Sanskrit. For example, according to Panini, the personal verb expresses the doer (in the active voice) and the object (in the passive voice). Karaks can also be expressed by primary suffixes (krt), secondary suffixes (taddhita), and compound words (Tavastshsrna, 2008, pp. 122-125).

3 The word don 'meaning, meaning' is used as a grammatical term only in the comments to the treatise "Sumchuia" when considering semantic roles.

4sva-tantrah karta [Gonda, 1977, p. 94].

5bya ba la sbyor bar ston ba [Dngul chu dharma bha dra, 1983, c. 172].

6 byed pa pos bya ba la sbyor ba ston pa [sum rtags gzhung 'chan legs bshad..., 1928, 6a4].

7 kartur ipsitatama karmarp [Gonda, 1977, p. 94].

8byed pa pos bya ba gang la byed pa'i don [Dngul chu dharma bha dra, 1983, с 166].

9byed pa pos bya ba gang byed kyi las) [sum rtags gzhung 'chan legs bshad..., 1928, 3b4].

10sadhakatama karanam [Gonda, 1977, p. 94].

11 karmnaa yam abhipraiti sa sapradanam [Gonda, 1977, p. 94].

12 bya ba gang zhig gis bya ba'i yul dc'am/ dc dang 'brcl ba'i las la phan 'dogs par 'gyur ba'i don [Dngul chu dharma bha dra, 1983, с 166].

13gang bya ba'i yul lam/ dc dang 'brcl ba'i las phan 'dogs par 'gyur ba'i don/ [sum rtags gzhung 'chan legs bshad..., 1928, 3b5].

14dhruvam apayc 'padana [Gonda, p. 94].

15chos gang las gang zhig bral ba'am 'byung ba ston pa'i don [Dngul chu dharma bha dra, 1983, с 180].

16rigs bya ba yon tan sogs logs su dgar ba'i don [sum rtags gzhung 'chan legs bshad..., 1928, 7b1].

17adharo 'dhikaran am [Gonda, 1977, p. 94].

18gang zhig gang la brtcn pa'i don [Dngul chu dharma bha dra, 1983, с 168].

19gang la rtcn pa'am/ dcr yod pa'i don [sum rtags gzhung 'chan legs bshad..., 1928, 3b6].

20 According to the phonetic part of the anonymous commentary and Situ Mahapandita's commentary, three components are involved in the pronunciation of letters: skye gnas 'place of formation'; byedpa 'articulatory organ'; rlsol ba 'effort'. U.K. Vsrkharsn gives Sanskrit equivalents for these terms: skye gnas sthana 'point of articulation'; byed pa karana 'articulator'; rtsol ba prayatna 'effort', i.e. the process of articulation [Vcrhagcn, 2001, p. 217]. In the Tibetan tradition ,the "place of education" is a place that is the basis for the formation of sound. According to the Situ system, there are six places where consonants are formed: the larynx, palate, teeth, lips, tip (of the tongue), and nose.

21 For example, du ba mlhong ba dang mershes so ' Sees smoke and learns about fire '[Dngul chu dharma bha dra, 1983, p. 189].

22 For example: nyi ma phyedpa dang chos ston drangs 'when noon came, a religious festival was held '[Dngul chu dharma bha dra, 1983, p. 189].

23 The most important verbs for describing the connection of graphemes in the grammatical composition "Sumchuia": 'jug 'to use' and sbyor 'to add' are widely used by commentators. The meanings in which they are used generally correspond to the way they are used in the Sumchuia grammar. However, for example, the verb 'jug' is also used in other grammatical meanings in the comments. In the original grammatical composition, the verb jug describes only the possible addition of initial and final consonant graphemes to the main graphemes of a syllable. The ways of using this verb in comments are much broader. Most often, jug is used to convey the following meanings: [gang gi] rnam dbye la jug 'use in any case', [ganggi] don la jug 'use in any meaning'.

In religious and philosophical texts, verbs have the meaning 'apply'. These verbs also belong to elements of the Vajrayana tantric language (Miller, 1993, p. 56).

list of literature

Bolsokhosva N. D., Vanchikova Ts. II., Dashisv D. B. et al. Introduction to the study of Ganzhur and Danch. zhur. Historical and bibliographic essay. Novosibirsk: Nauka Publ., 1989.

Tavastshsrna S. S. Formation and development of the linguistic tradition in Ancient India. Diss. ... Candidate of Philology, Sciences. St. Petersburg, 2008.

Beyer S.V. The Classical Tibetan Language. N.Y., 1992.

Dngul chu dharma bha dra. Yul gangs can gyi skad kyis brda sprod pa'i bstan bcos sum cu pa dang / rtags kyi 'jug pa'i rnam bshad mkhas mchog si tu'i zhal lung zhes bya ba bzhugs so // Sarat Chandra Das. An Introduction to the Grammar of the Tibetan Language. Delhi, 1983.

Gonda J. A History of Indian Literature. Wiesbaden, 1977.

Miller R.A. Prolegomena to the First Two Tibetan Grammatical Treatises. Wicn, 1993.

Skal bzang 'gyur med. Bod kyi brda sprod rig pa'i khrid rgyun rah gsal me long. Chcngtu, 1981.

Snellgrove D., Richardson H. A Cultural History of Tibet. N.Y., 1968.

Sum rtags gzhung 'chan legs bshad nor bu'i phrcngba zhes bya ba bzhugs so // Bacot J. Les slokas grammaticaux de Thonmi Sambhota. P., 1928.

Verhagen P.C. A History of Sanskrit Grammatical Literature in Tibet. Vol. II: Assimilation into Indigenous Scholarship. Leidcn-Boston-Koln: Brill, 2001.

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