Indians in the Middle Ages preserved the mythological perception of India as the island of Jambudwipa, surrounded by the ocean and stretching from the Himalayas to Cape Comorin (Kanyakumari), or to the "bridge of Rama"(or "bridge of Adam"). This territory in their ideas consisted of many countries, among which were both real and imaginary. The mythological perception of space was consistently combined with the realistic one, especially at the level of a state, region, village group, or settlement. The North and South of the subcontinent, as well as the inhabitants of the North and South, were clearly distinguished, and the North was perceived as a territory of greater sanctity. The interweaving of mythological and realistic knowledge about space was inherent in all segments of the population: the ruling groups, merchants, and villagers. The article is based mainly on the data of gift certificates and other South Indian epigraphic sources of the VI-XIII centuries.

Keywords: India, Middle Ages, territory, mentality, mythology, reality.

Indian civilization is unique. It was distinguished by the attitude of people to time and space. Mythology played a big role in life. Based mainly on South Indian letters of gift and other inscriptions, the article shows how in the thinking of the medieval inhabitants of South India, mythological ideas about the whole of India and its constituent countries were combined with knowledge about settlements, regions, provinces and states. The synthesis of mythological and real worldview was demonstrated by all segments of the population: rulers, merchants, landowners.

In recent years, the so-called civilizational approach has been announced, which, according to its protagonists, should replace the formative (or even stage-based) method of considering human history. However, in practice, civilizationists limit themselves to proclaiming their own creed, without developing the question of what, in essence, civilizations differ in. It all boils down to attempts, directly or implicitly, to convey the idea that it is possible for a particular society to bypass the Western European path of development, to carry out modernization without Westernization in some intricate way (how exactly, is not specified).

Let us leave aside this line of thought, since it lies in the plane of politics and ideology and has nothing to do with science. 1 But different civilizations, as intuition suggests, do exist, and humanity consists of them,

1 Let us also leave aside the lack of generally accepted criteria for distinguishing civilizations, disputes about their number, and the presence of" intermediate " societies, which are difficult to assign to a particular civilization. In the humanities, as well as in the natural sciences, there are quite a lot of concepts that do not have a clear definition, but they are used.

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and, if we want to understand the flow of the whimsical flow that we call the historical process, it would be nice to get closer to identifying multidimensional portraits of those communities that we undoubtedly consider civilizations.

As for the Indian civilization, this line of research was initiated by E. Yu. Vanina's book [Vanina, 2007]. She analyzed the ideas of medieval Indians about space, time, law and society, however, focusing on the similarity of these ideas in medieval India and Western Europe. This aspect is also important for understanding civilisations, but then the serious differences between these so different societies remain obscured.2
I have noted in a number of my works that the Indian civilization differs from others, in particular, in that it allows and cultivates a mythological and idealistic attitude to reality [Alaev, 2004; Alaev, 2006; Alaev, 2011, p.23]. The dharmashastras paint the image of an ideal society that is unattainable on earth. "Arthashastra" gives advice on the construction of an ideal state, which cannot be used in practice, if only because they contradict each other [Vigasin, 1999]. According to treatises on the science of construction, it is impossible to build anything [Tyulina 2010, p. 11-12]. This feature of perception and "processing" of reality was also evident in the attitude of Indians to the space, territory, and country in which they lived.

It is known that the Indians created a mythological geography. It is not necessary to state it in full: it is not the subject of this article. But it is necessary to give a general idea of "Puranic geography" in order to understand how much it was alive and relevant in the practical life of Indians in the Middle Ages. The puranic writers saw the world as consisting of seven islands. They either have the shape of concentric rings, each surrounded by a special ocean (salty, sweet, wine, etc.), or they are just continents scattered in the ocean. The central island (continent) is called Jambudwipa, which is India. It contains many countries (varsha, there are other terms) grouped around Mount Meru. The chief of these countries is Bharatwarsha ("The Land of Bharata" or "The Land of the Bharatas"). One of the books of the Mahabharata (VI. 10.36-68) lists these countries [Mahabharata, 2009, p. 24-26]. Among them are both real historical regions of India (or their names allow us to speculate about their location), and clearly mythical ones. Please note that this list should contain the most important information in context: Sanjaya, at Markandeya's request, tells us what lands the heroes of the poem are fighting for and where the battle itself will take place. However, as we can see, in fact, this list has no practical significance. But the main message of this text is pragmatic: India is a single territory consisting of many countries. Let's also note that the names of countries are in the plural, i.e. they most likely mean not the territory, but the people (tribe) occupying the territory. These observations will be useful when considering medieval materials.

The Mahabharata is mythological by definition, so its description of mythical geography is quite appropriate. Let us turn to a work of a different genre, more mundane - Dandin's "picaresque romance", as it is sometimes called, "Dasakumaracharita" (Dandin, 1964). In it, ten princes experience a variety of adventures clearly "inside" India, without going beyond its borders, but in different countries. However, for the most part, there is no way to identify the countries they travel to. If scientists try to link some names to real territories, it turns out that the characters "jump" through many hundreds of kilometers, "not noticing" the countries through which they should have passed. In other words, the author of the "novel" does not care at all about the realism of its narrative.

2 For a more detailed analysis of this book, see [Alaev, 2008].

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Meanwhile, real countries within India existed, had a distinct localization, but were "visible" not to Indians, but to practically oriented foreigners. The Chinese pilgrim Xuan-tsang in 629-645, firstly, clearly records from a certain point of his journey that he travels through India (Yindu), and secondly, mentions 82 countries in this space, in each of which he tries to see the features, although in general his descriptions are quite stereotypical [Xuantsang, 2012].

For the first time, we get acquainted with the ideas of South Indian peoples (more precisely, only Tamils) about their own location from the so-called Sangam literature. It is believed that it depicts the situation around the N-W centuries AD, although literary works related to this complex were created later. This in itself is also informative: "Sangam literature" continued to develop when the "Sangam period" was already a thing of the past. The geographical representations of the inhabitants of Tamilnadu at that time are reflected in fiction: lyrical and heroic poems, mainly in the epic poems "Shilappadikaram" and "Manimehaley".

From them we learn that there is a country called Tamilaham. It consists of three kingdoms: Chola, Pandya and Chera. We know the capitals of these kingdoms, the relationships of their rulers, and many other details. It is known exactly where these kingdoms were located: Chola in Cholamandalam with the center in Thanjavur; Pandya - in Pandyanada with the center in Madurai, Chera-in the upper reaches of Kaveri. Their capital was Vanji (Karur). There is no doubt about their existence, especially since they are mentioned in the inscriptions of Ashoka, and later, throughout the Middle Ages, we meet with the same dynasties in the same territories (only the later Chers changed their location compared to earlier relatives, moving to the Malabar coast). At the same time, there is no material evidence of their existence. At the same time, the dynasty from which the inscriptions are preserved (Pallavas) is absent in the literature of the Sangama period. The three and only three kings who rule "from the day of Creation" were legitimate from the point of view of ancient Tamil. The expression " three crowns "(muvenda) had a very clear meaning [Subrahmanian, 1966, p. 706].

According to the literature of the Sangam, the three kingdoms are very close, forming a single space. The heroes of Shilappadikaram, Kovalan and Kannagi, live in the Chola capital; go to" start a new life " in the Pandyan capital; Kannagi is memorialized by the Chera ruler. Some grandees held the honorary title of muvendavelan, which can be understood as "servant of the three crowns", i.e. emphasized their "international" status within Tamilnadu.

These three kings call themselves "southern" or "Tamil" kings, and clearly contrast themselves with the "northern, Aryan" kings (vada aryar padey kadandu) [Novella..., 1966, pp. 155-157, 161-165, 175-178, etc.; Subrahmanian, 1966, p. 548]. There is a certain inferiority complex in relation to the North and the northern kings, which turns into arrogance. Trips to the North (real or imagined) became the objects of special pride of the Tamil kings. When the idea arose to erect a statue of Kannagi, the stone for it was decided to get in the Himalayas. It was impossible to find a closer stone! Those who are somewhat familiar with India know that there is just enough stone to carve not only statues, but even temples from a whole piece in South India. Just remember Mahabalipuram with its Pancharatha. So, the Chera king Senguttuvan, according to the Shilappadikaras, went to the Ganges, defeated all the North Indian rulers, got the right stone, brought the captive" Aryan "kings in his Chera and mocked them to his heart's content.

The question arises, how did the Indians understand their country when they descended from the heights of the heroic (epic) past and did not entertain themselves with fiction, but solved quite mundane issues - land ownership, state borders, relations with neighbors, etc. personally-

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It is a difficult social relationship, and therefore, it would seem, must be realistic. However, even in them, the reflection of reality gets along peacefully with the imagination of reality. A particular ruler rules a particular state, and at the same time an ideal ruler reigns in an ideal state. A genealogical myth, an administrative myth, a social myth, and others are created (for more information, see: [Alaev, 2003, p. 21-24; Alaev, 2004; Alaev, 2006; Alaev, 2011, p.20-28]). The numbers mentioned in the inscriptions very often carry not quantitative, but qualitative information. They mean "a lot" or "a limited number"; it would be simply wrong to accept them "at face value" (Alaev, 2010). In this case, we will be interested in a geographical myth. How did the inhabitants of early medieval India imagine the country in which they lived?

Not very often, but still a noticeable number of times, the authors of inscriptions start from the puranic picture of the world. In one of the inscriptions of Vikramaditya VI of the Western Chalukya dynasty from 1112, discovered in the Dharwar district, the compiler considers it necessary to describe this legend in detail. According to him, Brahma first "self-originated", and Swayambhuva Manu descended from him. His son Priyavrata ruled all the seven continents, but distributed them among his seven sons. Jambudvipa, surrounded by a salty ocean, went to Agnidhara. Other sons received Plaksha (surrounded by an ocean of sugar cane juice), Shalmalidvipa (surrounded by an ocean of wine), Kushadvipa (surrounded by an ocean of butter), Krauncha (surrounded by an ocean of whey), Shaku (surrounded by an ocean of milk), Pushkara (surrounded by an ocean of fresh water).

Further, the author is only interested in Jambudwipa. Agnidhara's son Nabha ruled the country south of the Himalayas. Further south was Kimpurushavarsha. To the south of the Nishadha Mountains lay the country of Harivarsha. The Ilavrita country, centered on Mount Meru, was located along the Jambu River. Further, the country of Hiramanta is mentioned, of which it is only known that there are "many mountains"to the south of it. To the east of the Golden King of Mountains (i.e. Mount Meru) lies the country of Uttarakuru, as well as Maly Vanta and Bhadrasvavarsha. To the west of Gundamadan is the country of Ketumala.

Nabha's eldest son was Bharata. From him came the name of the country Bharatvarsha. And immediately after this phrase, the real ruler of the Western Chalukya dynasty, Vikramaditya VI, is mentioned, i.e. it is emphasized that he is a direct descendant of Bharata, and at the same time "an ornament of the Chalukya family, a scion of the Manu family". Only then does the inscription tell about the historical genealogy of the Chalukya dynasty, and it is stated that they belong to the Lunar Dynasty, but are related in the female line to the Solar Dynasty [EI, XIII, No. 4-A, p. 50-53]. I want to emphasize that this is not a treatise on geography or other work on a free topic, but a business document-a certificate of donation of a village to a specific brahmin.

The same vision is presented at some length in the 1172 inscription of Bidjala Kalachuri (Bijapur district): "Jambudvipa, thrice surrounded by the waves of the ocean, is exceptionally beautiful. In the middle of this continent rises, flaunting to the skies, Mount Mandara. The land of Bharata (Bharatakshetram), lying to the south of Mandara, sparkles in the eyes of the whole world. The conspicuous curl (kuntala) on the head of the lady who is this land is Kuntala..."[EI, XV, No. 20, p. 324]. The vassal of Bidjala, Vikramaditya Sinda, in an inscription dated 1179, also states that the world is surrounded by an ocean, in the center of Jambudvipa, in his opinion, rises the Golden Mountain Meru, to the south of which lies the country of Bharata [EI, XIX, No. 38-B, p. 229, 233].

The scribe of Krishna Yadava in 1250 imagined the world a little differently: "There is a beautiful ocean surrounded by mighty mountains like a moat, which have the shape of a fortress for the city of the whole world, the noblest in the whole world. In the middle of it is Meru, beautiful because it looks like an incomparable palace of the gods; the continent, shaped like an ancient jambu tree, occupies a place to the south of it (i.e., from

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mount Meru). In the center of this Jambudvipa stands out the land (kshetra) of Bharata, the abode of joy. It contains the Kuntala region ... " [EI, XIX, No. 3, p. 26]. Further, the description in the mentioned inscriptions "descends to the ground" and tells about real territories.

The existence of such ideas is noted in various periods of Indian history, for example, in the time of the Guptas. Skandagupta "subdued the whole earth bounded by the waters of the four oceans" [III, III, No. 14, p. 62]; see also: [EI, XXXI, No. 1, p. 10; EI, III, No. 20, p. 129 (965, Eastern Ganges); No. 21, p. 133 (1060)]. In South Indian inscriptions, this legend is often implied. Thus, the Bidjala inscriptions of 1142 and 1161 mention "seven continents and seven oceans" [EI, V, No. 3, p. 20]. In an 1171 inscription describing the war of the Chola king Rajadhiraja II with a coalition of Pandyas and the Ceylon king, among the epithets of the Chola king are inserted, firstly, "The Goddess of the Earth surrounded by the sea", and secondly, "whose glory extends to the seven worlds surrounded by four oceans" [EI, XXI, No. 31, p. 191; see also: EI, XIV, No. 27, p. 363 (1026); XXII, No. 10, p. 52 (1238, Tirunelveli)].

Rajaraja I, in an inscription called the Great Leyden Tablets, refers to three of his ancestors as having conquered a land "surrounded by an ocean." And one of his legendary ancestors "ruled this world all the way to Mount Lokaloka." Parantaka, the real ruler, the actual founder of the imperial Chola dynasty, "conquered the world up to [Mount] Chakravala" [EI, XXII, No. 34, p. 255-256]3.

Sometimes it is difficult to understand how the ideas expressed in the inscription relate to certain legends. For example, it is said of Jatavarman Kulasekhara Pandya that "the shadow of his white umbrella covers seven seas and seven gardens surrounded by eight mountains" [EI, XXV, No. 11, p. 122].

At the same time, there was a clear understanding that "country" or "whole world" (which meant the same thing to the Indians) stretched from the Himalayas to Cape Comorin. In the North, too, South India was considered part of their world. The inscription of Bhaskaradeva Licchavi from Nepal tells that his troops reached the Southern Ocean and he defeated the Kanchinagara mandala [Lelyukhin, 2009, p. 11-12]. Apparently, this refers to the state of the Pallavas, who called their domain Thondaimandalam and whose capital was Kanchipuram. The king's visit to Nepal from the South is also mentioned. The historicity of the events may be questioned, but it is important in this case that the Pallava state (in the extreme south of the peninsula) was known in distant Nepal and "inserted" it in the praise of its ruler. In this context, it is impossible not to mention the southern campaign of Samudragupta, glorified in his Allahabad inscription. He, too, is said to have defeated all the southern kings. In this case, all that matters to us is what the North and the fourth century knew about the states of the South. The rulers of the Deccan were also clearly aware that they were opposed to the sovereigns of the North. Pulakeshin II Chalukya's clash with Harshavardhana in 620 on the banks of Narbada was remembered even after many decades as a victory of the South over the North: "victory over the lord of Uttarapatha (Northern Country) Sri Harshadeva" [EI, XIV, No. 8, p. 151; XXXII, No. 21, p. 176].

South Indian kings for some reason considered the southern tip of the peninsula not Kanyakumari, but Setu, i.e. Ramanathapuram, standing on a promontory jutting out into the Polk Strait in the direction of Sri Lanka. Thus, according to Amoghavarshi I Rashtrakuta, his ancestor Dantidurga (735-756) "defeated hordes of elephants (meaning not wild elephants, but fighting ones, the shock force of certain armies) from the Himalayas to the tip of the majestic bridge" (i.e., "Rama Bridge") [EI, VI, No 4, p. 34; XVIII, No. 26, p. 252]. Even a minor vassal of Vikramaditya VI of the Sindh family boasts that "his fame is free

3 Mount Lokaloka, according to the puranas, has a ring shape and rises on the shore of the ocean of sweet water surrounding the last, seventh dvipa. Chakravala is a double circle of mountains that borders the entire world according to Buddhist ideas.

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He walks among enemy crowds between the Himalayas and the [Rama] Bridge" [EI, III, No. 43, p. 311]. Virarajendra (1063-1070) also " reigned from the Himalayas in the north... to Setu [in the south]" [E1, XXI, No. 38, p. 244]. A vassal of Krishna Yadava in 1250 subordinated the entire land "from Setu to the snowy mountains" to his master, although he took half of it for himself [EI, XIX, No. 3, p. 27].

In an atmosphere of rampant flattery against ruling kings and their ancestors, the more modest claims of individual rulers are surprising. Thus, Vikramachola in 1049, although he was declared "emperor of the three worlds" (i.e., Heaven, Earth, and the underworld), nevertheless claimed "only" lands in India from the Ganges to Kaveri [EC, VI, No. 21-A, p. 227]. And Ganapati Kakatya in 1231 "ruled the country from the Southern Ocean to the Vindhya Mountains" [EI, III, No. 15, p. 84, 91]. He thus refused to claim Northern India. One of the Eastern Chalukya vassals in 1195 is also modest. He writes about the ruler of this dynasty, Vishnuvardhana IV (772-808), that he ruled (only) Dakshinapatha, i.e. in the space "between the bridge [of Rama] and Narmada" [EI, IV, No. 10, p. 94]. It can be seen that the Narbada River (Narmada) was perceived as a symbolic border between North and South India.

Almost always, the gift is accompanied by a warning to those who dare to take away the gift. We'll talk about this later, when we turn to the question of the significance of the North for the sacred geography of India. Now it is only about the fact that not only in the formulas that glorify great and not so great rulers, but also in the ideas of the "common people", the idea of the unity of India was quite relevant. In 967/68, a merchant, a member of the merchant corporation, gave a sum of money to the village assembly to organize the construction of a reservoir. And he accompanied his gift with the words: "Whoever violates this gift will incur a sin equal to the sins of all criminals from the Ganges to the Kumari" [EI, XXVIII, No. 43, p. 272].

The perception of India as a single continent was also reflected in the fact that the sacred sites of Northern India were perceived as all-Indian. These are Kashi (Varanasi), Ayodhya, Kurukshetra, Somnath.

References to these cities and localities are almost mandatory for the final phrases of the inscription, where the one who encroaches on the donated property is cursed. Amoghavarsha I in 865 calls for the one who protects his gift to be considered an ashvamedha, and the one who takes away this gift to be considered a murderer of a brahmana [EI, VII, No. 28-D, p. 202]. But next year it raises rates. Now the defender of the gift receives the merit as if he himself had given a thousand brown cows in Varanasi, and the violator receives the sin of destroying Varanasi or killing a thousand brown cows and a thousand brahmins [EI, VII, No. 28-E, p. 208]. Amoghavarsha prefers to impose this punishment in his other inscriptions [EI, VII, No. 28-F, p. 214].

Pious behavior is also rewarded with references to the North: "Those who support this gift will receive the same merit as if they had made large donations in the sacred places of Varanasi, Kurukshetra, Arghyantirtha, Prayaga and Gaya" [EI, XII, No. 22-C, p. 181 (1082)].

Varanasi is also remembered when concluding completely private transactions and contracts. Thus, four magnates, having concluded an agreement among themselves to end hostility (mid-IX century), swear that anyone who violates this agreement "will commit the sin of killing 1000 cows in Varanasi" [EI, XXXVIII, No. 3, p. 26]. In 906, four landowners conclude an agreement among themselves on the distribution of land rights and insert an incantation in the inscription: if they deviate from the agreed decisions, then let them receive sin, as if they destroyed Varanasi, killed 7 crores (i.e. 70 million) of ascetics, destroyed a pond, garden and killed a cow [EI, XXVI, No. 4, p. 60]. The Merchants 'Guild, having decided to charge the temple fees on their goods, accompanies it with a warning:" Anyone who violates this agreement will be guilty of murder near the Ganges, in Prayag,

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there are 1,000 cows in Varanasi or Kurukshetra; he will receive the mortal sin of killing his eldest son at Adityatirtha and eating out of his skull" [EI, XIX, No. 4, p. 40].

In 1107. Tailapa II Kadamba states, " Whoever retains this gift will receive the merit of giving 1,000 cows to a thousand brahmins in Varanasi or Kurukshetra. And whoever violates this gift will receive a sin 5 times greater than killing 1000 brahmans and 1000 cows in Varanasi or Kurukshetra " [EI, XIII, No. 2, p. 15]4.

The legendary origin of South Indian dynasties or castes from the North is strongly emphasized and cultivated. 59 (mythical) kings of the Western Chalukya dynasty, according to an inscription in 1123, originally ruled in Ayodhya, and only the last 16 (real) have already moved the center of their possessions to the Deccan. Only Vikramaditya VI "established his authority over the Dravidian kings" [EI, XII, No. 19, pp. 143-144].

At the beginning of the XI century. Rajendra I Chola, according to his own inscription, made a campaign to the North, defeated all the northern princes, his elephants drank the Ganges water, and he brought the Ganges water to the South, which he poured into various reservoirs of Tamilnadu. After that, he assumed another title of Gangaikondachola ("Chola who captured the Ganges"), and built a new capital, called Gangaikondacholapuram - "The City of the Chola who captured the Ganges".

In 1053, a vassal of the Western Chalukyas, Maravarman Kadamba, descended directly from Shiva, led 84 cities, and performed 18 ashwamedhas in honor of both Shiva and Vishnu. Moreover, he "established his power over the majestic mountain Himavat" [EI, XVI, No. 10, p. 68]. And in 1056, his successor Harikesarideva, being a direct subordinate of Prince Vikramaditya, who soon became Vikramaditya VI, performed the same number of ashvamedhas and also "established his power over the majestic Himalayas" [EI, XIII, No. 14, p. 174].

The worship of the North was also reflected in the fact that the southern dynasties sought to trace their lineage back to the Rajput dynasties of the Sun, Moon, or Fire. This story itself is not included in the topic of this article. We only cover the geographical aspects of this topic. South Indians did not always accurately reproduce the legends they used to create the genealogical myths of their overlords. Thus, one of the inscriptions of Someshvara I describes the legend of the creation of the Fire Dynasty by the sage Agastya. But in the original legend, Agastya built his fire on Mount Abu (in Rajasthan), and in the inscription - on Mount Kailasa in the Himalayas. And from the context of the inscription, it appears that the Chalukyas originated in the Himalayas [EI, XXXV, No. 21, p. 160].

The minor Sindhi dynasty, which held the title of mahasamanta (i.e. "great vassal") and ruled in the Bijapur region in the eleventh century, descended from the snake king Vasuki and from the city of Ahicchatra, which, according to the Mahabharata, was the capital of Janapada North Panchala. Archaeologists place it in the Bareilly district of Uttar Pradesh [EI, III, No. 33, p. 231; XXV, p. 164-171]. The Bans (X century) believed that they were descended from the demon Bali, one of the figures in the widespread myth [EI, XVII, No. 1, p. 2] 5. The Western Ganges also insisted on their northern origin and were proud to have brought Jainism to the South (Stein, 1980, p. 317).

In the country of Kongu (Western Tamilnadu), there is a tradition that the name of their country comes from a certain Kongani, the son of the king of Magadha, who performed ascetic feats here and became a siddhi ("saint") [EI, XXX, No. 19, p. 95].

4 For more examples of such threats, see: [EI, XII, No. 37, p. 340 (1179); XVI, No. 25, p. 336 (1255); XVII, No. 10, p. 122 (1048); XIX, No. 38-A, p. 226 (1022); XXXII, No. 20, p. 174 (1207); XXXVI, No. 9, p. 74 (1074)].

5 Bali has taken over the entire land. To save the world, Vishnu appeared in the form of a dwarf and asked Bali to give up the part of the land that Vishnu could walk around in three steps. When Bali agreed, Vishnu turned into a giant, covering the entire sky with one step, the entire earth with a second step, but he did not take the third step, leaving the underground kingdom to the demons.

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Professional associations of merchants and artisans also gravitated to the north. One of the most frequently mentioned commercial corporations, vira-balanju, attributes its origin to the already mentioned Ahicchhatra [EI, XVI, No. 25, p. 332].

A copper plaque found near Belur tells a touching story. The Brahmans of the village of Hebbale decided to help their brethren who had migrated to Varanasi from different regions of India and had fallen under the rule of the "Turks", i.e. Muslims, and taxed jizya. Having chipped in, they collected 645 coins (which are named both gadyana and nishka), and of these, 402 were sent to Varanasi, clearly determining which community is entitled to how much. 30 Gadyans should go to Karnataka, 6 to Gujarati, 65 to Tigula, 35 Gadyans to 5 Pana-Telugu, 8 Gadyans to Maharashtra, 15 to Tirabhukti, 15 to Gauda (i.e., North Indian Brahmins) [EC, XV, Belur 298; SIE, X, pp. 73-74; Usha Rani, 1995] 6.

Not very often, but sometimes the northern origin of certain artisans and specialists is mentioned. For example, the column in the Lakshmeshwara temple in 754 was built by the architect Jnanashiva, who, it turns out, came from Mrigathanikahara, from the northern bank of the Ganges [EI, III, No. 1, p. 7]. Vikramaditya VI's vassal was Bhiwanaya, who came from Kashmir (Kashmiravishaya) [EI, XVI, No. 8, p. 32, 33].

South Indians also remember the Himalayas on other occasions. Thus, when describing what a great scholar a certain Damodar, the compiler of an inscription in the Dharwar region, considers it necessary to mention that women dance in his honor at the foot of "the great mountain of the gods, in the Himalayas, and at Mount Malaya" [EI, XIX, No. 37, p. 222].

The consciousness of the secondary importance of the South was also manifested in the assignment of northern toponyms to a number of South Indian or Deccan geographical objects. Thus, the Godavari River, as well as the Tungabhadra River, is sometimes called the "southern Ganges" [EI, XV, No. 23-A, p. 345]. The town of Nimbahura near Bijapur was named "south Varanasi" in 1187 [EI, XXVIII, No. 18, p. 96]. The tirthas that were famous as places of healing were sometimes called "southern Somnath" [EI, XVI, No. 11-B, 11-C, p. 76, 82, 87]. King of the Reddy dynasty already in the XIV century. He built steps in Srishailam to climb higher than the Meru, Mandara and Kailasa mountains, i.e. to reach the sky [EI, III, No. 39, p. 291]. In one of the inscriptions of Vikramaditya VI, when describing his genealogy, it is unexpectedly stated that his ancestor Satyashraya (reigned in 997-1008) had the title "ruler of Ayodhya" [EI, XIII, No. 4-A, p. 52].

It should be noted that the North also had its own gradation of sacredness of territories. For example, in the Agni Purana (which dates very roughly from the 8th-12th centuries), it is stated that only "a brahmana born in the middle country (Madhyadesa)" can install statues in the temple, but not those born in the countries of Kachcha (possibly Kach in Gujarat), Kaveri (meaning Chola country), in Konkan, Kamarupa (Assam), Kalinga (Orissa), Kanchi (in the Pallava country), Kashmir, Koshal (Tyulina, 2013, p.37). This list is indicative, but already for the geographical outlook of the authors of the puranas.

The idea that India is an island was naturally supplemented by the belief that there are no other peoples and lands. Indian cultural influence (both religious and cultural-political) extended far beyond the subcontinent. It is known what influence Buddhism and Hinduism had on the countries of Southeast and East Asia. It is difficult to imagine the spread of Indian culture without specific people moving to all these countries, or at least without brief visits from representatives of Indian cultures to these countries. However, willingly sharing with neighbors (not only close, but also far away!) with your spiritual reserves,

6 The fact that the total amount of donations does not coincide with the "distribution" by community should not bother us, since this did not bother the participants of the charity event.

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the Indians showed no interest in the culture of other peoples. There are notes about India by the companions of Alexander the Great (IV century BC), the unknown author of the "Peril of the Erythraean Sea" (I century AD), Chinese travelers Fa-hsien (V century), Xuanzang (VII century) and other European travelers of the XV-XVIII centuries, but there are no Indian notes about visiting other countries. countries. It is mentioned that India is surrounded by territories inhabited by "barbarians" (mleccha), and these barbarians can come to the sacred land of Jambudvipa and even seize power in it (like, for example, Muslims). But still, these mlecchas were of no interest.

There was no denying the existence of other countries. Ships from other countries came to the West Coast, for example. We know this for certain, because there are inscriptions that mention duties from such ships. But they came, according to the usage of the inscriptions, "from other islands "(dvipantara) [EI, III, No. 40, p. 297, 301 (1008)].

In one of the inscriptions of Rajendra I Chola, among his exploits, a naval campaign against the country of Kadaram (in Malaysia) and the Sumatran power of Srivijaya in 1025 is mentioned. However, we know almost nothing about this event, which could not but be grandiose, except for a brief mention in one of the inscriptions (Nagapattinam, 2009; Zakharov, 2012].

Let us now turn to another question: what countries did India (Jambudwipa) consist of from the point of view of its inhabitants? These countries are listed in the panegyrics of kings, when the author of the inscription wants to say that his patron conquered "the whole world". In addition, there are lists of countries in the labels of trade corporations, when they want to emphasize that their business also covers "the whole world". These lists may vary slightly, but they are generally of the same type.

Here are a few examples to show the real geographical outlook of the South Indian kings.

Amoghavarsha I of the Rashtrakuta reports that his father Govinda III (793-814) marched North, where he defeated the Pratihars, Chandragupta of Koshala, subdued Dharmapala (of the Pala dynasty), and Chakrayudha of Kanauj. His horses and elephants drank water from streams in the Himalayas. Then he went along the Narbada and conquered Malava, Kosala, Kalinga, Vanga, Dahala and Odraka. Later, he "humiliated the Dravidian kings" - Kerala, Pandya, Chaulika( Chola?), Pallavas. Kalinga, Magadha and Gurjaras are also mentioned here. He forced the ruler of Venga (from the Eastern Chalukyas) to do manual labor. He also conquered the ruler of Lanka [EI, XVIII, No. 26, p. 210, 241]. Another inscription says of Govinda III that he "overwhelmed [the inhabitants] Kerala, Malava, Gauda, Gurjara, those who live in the mountain fortress of Chitrakuta and the Kanchi lords (i.e. Pallavas) " [E1, VI, No. 11, p. 102-103]. Chitrakuta is a mountain in the Banda district mentioned in the Ramayana. In the VIII-IX centuries. this fortress was not the capital of any state. Here we see a mixture of names of real states and dynasties that Govinda III actually fought, and toponyms that were "well-known" but not associated with specific states.

Someshwara I of the Western Chalukyas defeated the Cholas, Malavas, Angus, Vanga, Khasa, Vengi, Pandyas, Saurashtra, Kerala, Nepal, Turushkas, Chera and Magadha in 1060. And his vassal mahasamantadhipati Nagadeva defeated the Cholas, Bhojas (i.e. Paramaras), Gurjars and Seuns, Cheras, Konkans [EI, XV, No. 6-F, pp. 86-88, 91].

Someshvara II, it appears, ruled over the Cholas, Varalars, Lals, Khas, Magadas, Keralas, Parasiks, Nepals ,and Turushkas in 1069, and in 1075 he subdued the Cholas, Malavas, Angas, Vangs, Khas, Vengas,etc. Pandyas, Saurashtras, Keralas, Nepals, Turushkas, Cheras, and Magadhas [EI, XV, No. 6-H, p. 99].

The Kalachuri king in 1172 reports that he conquered the Malavas, Cholas, Nepals, Kalingas, Panchals, Gurjars, as well as the Gaudas, Pandyas, Malayalas, and Verals (?) [EI, XV, No. 20, p. 317].

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One of the Yadavas, Jaitugideva, conquered the Gurjars, Pandyas, Cholas, the countries of Lala (i.e. Lata, Gujarat) and Gaula (i.e. Gauda, part of Bengal). And his vassal with the title of dandanatha ("warlord") defeated the troops of the Malavas, Kalingas, Panchalakas, Turushkas and Non-Yalaks [EI, V, No. 3, p. 29].

About Maravarman Sundara Pandya I, a 1238 inscription states that "all the kings like Konkana, Kalinga, Kosala, Maluva( Malwa), Sinhala (Ceylon), Telinga (Andhra), Kinnara, Gurdjara (Gujarat), Villava, Magadha, Vikkala, Shembia and Pallava bring tribute to him in a hurry and jostling to get a seat closer [to the throne]." As you can see, different countries are listed, some of which may be real kingdoms, while others are known to the author only by name, apparently from the epic. All of them do not extend beyond the subcontinent, with the exception of Sinhala (Ceylon). At the same time, they make up "this whole world surrounded by a roaring ocean" [EI, XXII, No. 10, p. 50, 52].

Another Pandyan king, Maravarman Sundara Pandya II, discovered in 1249 that "all the surveyed countries", all the "ancient territories", such as Kosalam, Tuluvam, Kudiram, Kuchcharam, Posalam, Magadam, Popnalam, Pundaram, Kalingam, Ilam, Kadaram, Gaudam, Telingam, Shonakam and Chinam, are located in the same region. under his rule, although they are ruled by legitimate crowned kings [EI, XXIV, No. 22, p. 170]. An indologist will immediately see in this list familiar names of real historical and cultural areas of India (and only India, with the exception of Ceylon), as well as fictional names included in the list for the sake of rhyme or"to the heap".

These examples of panegyrics may bore the reader. But they show how limited and stereotyped was the geographical outlook of the rulers of medieval South Indian states (or their scribes who compiled the inscriptions).

Mythological and realistic levels of understanding of space were combined without difficulties. Thus, in Govinda IV's Rashtrakuta inscription of 929/30, a very real village is located in the real division of Purikara-60, which is included in the semi-legendary country of Kuntala, which, in turn, forms part of the mythical Bharatvarsha [EI, XIII, No. 29, p. 335]. In the already mentioned inscription of Vikramaditya VI, which tells a fascinating story about the origin of the world and its history, the mythical Bharatvarsha, it turns out, includes the very real region of Belwala, and in it lies the small district of Narayangal-12, and in it the" famous " (as it is represented) agrahara (Brahmin settlement) Ittage [EI, XIII, No. 4-A, p. 53], which appears as a legal entity.

The inscription of Krishna Yadava 1250 passes with the same directness from the mythological to the everyday language. Both Jambudvipa and Bharatvarsha are mentioned, but then it is clarified that we are talking about the Kuntala region (Kuntalorvvi), where there is a province of Kundi (Kuntidesa), and in it "shines a city", which "in the local language" (lokabhasaya) is called Kurumbetta [EI, XIX, No. 3, p. 26].

The names of Indian countries included in the above "heroic lists" are part of the legend about the power of a particular sovereign and therefore may be far from reality. But in other parts of the inscriptions there are place names that clearly existed "on earth", although also not without legendary details. For example, in 634/5, it is claimed that Pulakeshin II owned "three Maharashtraks" with their 990,000 villages [EI, VI, No. 1, p. 10].

Kalinga, i.e. Orissa (modern Odisha), under its historical name, is referred to as a real region (Vishaya) in an inscription of the mid-seventh century [EI, XIV, No. 27, p. 361]. It also appears under another well-known name Utkaladesha in an inscription dated 1199 [EI, XXXI, No. 34, pp. 250-252]. Vijayabahu Vikramaditya Bana in the mid-twelfth century mentions that one of his ancestors "ruled the country west of andhratpathah" (EI, III, No. 13, p. 78). The inscription was found almost on the border of the modern states of Andhra Pradesh and Tamilnadu. The author of the label should:

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it would write "south of the country of Andhra". It is only important to note that the concept of" Andhra country " already existed. The Kakatiyas called their possessions" Andhra country " (EI, III, No. 15, p. 89). However, Princess Rudramba, who was at the head of this state, preferred to call her possessions Kakatarajya. Telengana was also known. A certain dynasty of nobles in 1368 in the Godavari district ruled Triling (i.e. Telengana), which is included in Bharatakhanda [EI, XIII, No. 24, p. 270].

Mythological ideas about the world did not prevent the Indians from having a fairly clear idea of the immediate environment. Villages that served as the object of donation or the place of operation of a local authority usually have an "address", i.e. it was considered necessary to indicate in which district these villages are located. From these references, we can make a fairly accurate map, for example, of Tamilnadu during the Chola period, when we have the largest number of inscriptions at our disposal. After studying these references, I. Subbarayalu established the location of 556 nadus (districts, communities) (Subbarayalu, 1973). Sometimes larger territorial units (kottam, kutram, valanadu, mandalam) are also indicated in addition to nadu. In Andhra, under the Pallavas, Eastern Chalukyas and Eastern Ganges, villages are usually "registered" in one or another Rashtra, Khand or Vishai. In Karnataka, they are located in a community association with a numerical index (for example, Ayaje-300, Kanne-300 [ARE, 125 of 1959/60, p. 57]). Sometimes this "address" is very detailed: the village is located in Kudukuli-13, in Eltapi-90, which is a campana (district) in Waddawana-500 [ARE, 87 of 1960/61, p. 61] 7.

There is no consensus on the meaning of indexes in the names of countries, regions and districts in Karnataka, and this is not the place for discussion on this issue. What is important for us is that in this system of distribution of certain numerical "ranks" there is a division into two types: small numbers that are clearly based on the number of villages (perhaps inaccurate, conditional, etc., but nevertheless clearly tied to the land), and huge numbers that have no practical significance (such as 12,000, 32,000, 96,000, etc.). For example, the Rashtrakuta state is often called Rattapadi-750,000, and clearly refers to 750,000 villages. Clearly, this number cannot be real, since even in all of modern India, there are only 600,000 villages. We are dealing with a smooth transition from reality to myth and back again.

With the designation of territorial divisions by a certain number, which should indicate the number of villages in a given territory, we also meet in Northern India. After the Rajput conquest of the 8th—10th centuries, the estates of the Rajput clans appeared, numbering 12, 24, 48, and 84 villages (for more information, see [Alaev, 1976, p. 45-48; Alaev, 1981, p.84-85]). Sometimes associations of 360 villages are mentioned. These numbers also do not need to be taken at face value. They are fairly standard and conditional. But still, completely unrealistic numbers do not occur. Whether it is necessary to conclude that the Northerners were less inclined to mythological construction of reality than the southerners, perhaps future research will show.

But even at the level of small territorial units, mythology interfered with seemingly realistic messages. For example, it is known that there were two territories with the name "Konkan": one with an index of 1400 (from Chaul to Thana), and the other with an index of 900 (around Goa). But Jayasimha II (1015-1042) managed to capture the "seven Konkans" and defeat the lord of the Cholas, who, it turns out, ruled over the "five Dravidian kingdoms" [EI, XII, No. 34, p. 313]. The "Seven Concans" are mentioned in an 1154 inscription by Vijayaditya Shilahara of Kolhapur. It turns out that his uncle Bhoja I "ruled seven Konkanas that are bordered by the sea, much to the admiration of the kings of Kerala, Pandya, Pallava, Kalinga, Turushka, Varata, Lata, Kashmir, Surashtra" [SIE, XIV, No. 15, p. 95].

7 For possible interpretations of the meaning of numerical indices in geographical names in Karnataka, see [Alaev, 2011, pp. 380-399].

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For an adequate assessment of Indian perceptions of their country, it is important to know how traders imagined it, who by definition had to move depending on the demand for their goods. It is known that in South India there were at least several merchant associations that visited many regions, including those outside the Indian subcontinent. We know this for certain, because in different regions of South India and sometimes beyond its borders, their inscriptions remain on stone or on copper tablets, which record donations to temples and many other details of their activities. These are the guilds of ayavole (or ainnurruvar, i.e. "five hundred"), manigram, etc. (for more information, see [Alaev, 2011, p. 281-290, 487-496, 566-570, 610-613]).

But in addition to the actual information, the same inscriptions contain pompous panegyrics of these guilds, attempts to exaggerate their significance, attribute to them even greater distribution than in reality. Just as the rulers want to convince us that they own the whole world, and therefore list different countries (within "their" world, i.e., the world of the world). India and Sri Lanka), and trade corporations make extensive lists of countries where they supposedly trade, and from these lists we learn that the "world" of this most businesslike group of people was as narrow as the world of rulers, and also did not shy away from mythology.

A 1054 inscription from Shimoga District states that the merchants gathered here "visit Chera, Chola, Pandya, Malea (Malabar?), Magadha (Bihar), Kausala (eastern Uttar Pradesh), Saurashtra (Kathiyawar), Dhanushtra ("land of bows, archers"?), Kurumba (?) Cambodia (meaning the region in present-day Afghanistan), Gauda (Bengal), Lala (Southern Gujarat), Barwwara (Barbarikon?), Parasu (Persia?), Nepal, Ekapada ("The land of people with one leg"), Lambakarna ("The land of long ears"), Stri Rajya ("The kingdom of women"), Gholamukha ("The land of people with buttermilk faces") and many other countries... by land and water routes penetrating the spaces of 6 continents " [EU, VII, No. 118, p. 85-86].

The inclusion of both real historical and mythical territories in the "business territory" of Karnataka merchants, as well as the mention of "6 continents" (apparently other than Jambudvipa), makes us doubt the realism of the entire list, and suspect that this list itself was compiled not for information, but as part of a eulogy.

Another inscription from the same locality dated 1181 contains a contract or declaration drawn up by several guilds regarding the rules of inheritance of property. The significance of this document is very great. It is signed (approved, sanctioned) responsible persons: local tycoons (Dandanayaks), officials (representatives of the administrative authorities), two pattanaswamis ("city heads"), a priest of the matha (monastery), a priest of Linga (Shaivite temple), a priest of another temple, residents of Aihol, Challunki (real cities nearby), as well as representatives of cities "located in the region". Lat, Gouda, Karnat, Bangala, Kashmir and other countries in all parts of the world" and in general "all merchants who make up a huge [collection]" [EC, VII, No. 119, p. 90-91]. It is clear that the mention of "other countries in all parts of the world" was needed only to give the document even greater significance.

This mythologized understanding of space is strongly contrasted with the traditional symbolic (ritual?) belonging of South Indians to a specific locality, to their "small homeland". The Dravidian birthplace name becomes the first element of the name. In Tamil inscriptions, it is not uncommon to mention persons whose name is preceded by the name of the locality in the genitive case. No less often, the first element of the name is the name of the locality with the addition of udeiyai ("lord, owner"). For example, "Chidambaramudeyyan". It is impossible to take this title literally. Obviously, this way the person's place of origin was reported, and this was considered important for his identification.

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An interesting fact is that groups of merchants belong to a particular area. Usually we have inscriptions recording the charitable deeds of merchants of "different countries" (nanadeshi, paradeshi). This is quite understandable, since trade is usually associated with moving. In Karnataka, however, we often see merchants emphasizing their connection to a particular locality. For example, in 1100, "chettigutts from Pagalittage-300" are mentioned among the donors [EI, XXV, No. 11, p. 70]. In 1161, guilds making donations in one of the villages, Tarddavadi-1000, emphasize that they belong to this province [EI, V, No. 3-A, p. 21-23]. Tarddavadi-1000 was "native" to many cross-country guilds [IA, V, p. 23 (1163); VK, 36 of 1937/38 (1190)]. In the same Tarddavadi-1000, there is an unnamed "district of 36 villages", which also served as the "home" of a number of guilds [VK, 36 of 1937/38].

In 1126, "500 Swamis", i.e. members of the all-India Ayavole guild, declare that they are "from Palasige-12,000" [EI, XIII, No. 28-B, p. 316-325]. In 1220, in the same area, Ubhaya-nanadeshi, i.e., obviously alien people ("both groups of people from different countries"), declare that they are "from Banavasi-12,000 and Palasige-12,000" [VK, 50 of 1928/29 (SII, XV, No. 164)].

With such a reverent attitude of people to their "small homelands", it is very strange that localities often changed their composition and name. It was very common when allocating an estate to Brahmin communities to make it up of several villages or pieces of different villages, which were ordered to be considered as one settlement, with a new name assigned to it, most often including the name of the donor. Vira Choda, who ruled Andhra as the viceroy of his father Kulottunga I Chola, created" his " village Virachodachaturvedimangalam 8 by combining three villages: Malavelli with its 12 villages, Ponnatorra, both in Prolunandu district, and Alami village in Uttarvarusa district [EI, V, No. 10, pp. 95-96]. In the so-called Great Leiden Tablets of Rajaraja I, perhaps, a record is recorded: for the formation of a new brahmadeya (Brahmin settlement), land was taken from 26 villages [EI, XXII, No. 34, pp. 237-238].

The unification of several settlements into one administrative unit could be carried out either by the decision of the authorities (at the very formation of agrahara, a Brahmin settlement), or by the consent of the community members. Thus, to the inscription of Nandivarman I Pallava from about 459 about the donation of the village of Kanchivayil to a brahmana, an inscription from the time of Parantaka I Chola from 933 is added. It states that two sabhas (councils) - from Kanchivayila and Udayachandramangalam - have decided to merge the two villages together and continue to be considered a single village [ARE, 10 of 1962/63 (EI, III, No. 23, p. 142-143)].

South Indian sovereigns had a passion for dividing and uniting villages, renaming individual villages and entire regions. They had many names and titles, so many localities could be named after the same ruler. At the same time, the original names were often not forgotten, and the villages had two names connected by the word akiya (the relative past participle of the verb a - "to become, to correspond"), which can be translated as "that is", or "namely", or "otherwise [called]". However, new names were usually short-lived; they were probably forgotten after the death of the ruler or grandee in whose honor this new name was invented (for more details, see [Tsygankov, 1973]).

One of the Kakatya inscriptions attributes a strange act of deportation to Prataparudra I. It is alleged that he destroyed many cities, razing them to the ground, and relocated the inhabitants to his capital, Warangal, establishing suburbs and giving them the names of those cities from which the "displaced persons"came. And then he rebuilt the old cities and populated them with new people [EI, III, No. 15, p. 83]. I present this message as a curiosity. This information is no longer available. Perhaps this is a legend that should emphasize the immense possibilities of Prataparudra.

Chaturvedimangalam -8 "refuge of the four Vedas". The usual ending part of a toponym in the names of Brahmin settlements.

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The Chol sovereigns were particularly concerned with perpetuating their names. They tirelessly renamed the components of their kingdom. Thondaimandalam (former Pallava domain) they renamed it Jayangondacholamandalam. Pandya-nadu became Rajarajamandalam, or Rajarajapandi-nadu [SIE, XXVIII, No. 24, p. 80]. Kongumandalam after its conquest by the Cholas became Virasholamandalam after one of the names of Parantaka I [EI, XXX, No. 19, p. 99]. In the XI century. It became known as Adhirajarajamandalam, and in the twelfth century as Cholakeralamandalam (Stein, 1980, pp. 310-311).

Summing up these observations, we can say that medieval Indians lived simultaneously in both the real and mythological chronotope. They connected the imaginary and the real without seeing any contradictions between them. The popular opinion, probably derived from Max Weber, that Indians did not develop a rational attitude to life because they were immersed in religion, is incorrect. They were steeped in mythology. They created a fantastic country on this earth and lived in it, somehow connecting it with reality. The expression "other worldly Indian society" ("Indian society living in the other world") wrong. The Indians did not live in the other world, but in the earthly one, although it was constructed by their rich imagination.

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Alaev L. B. Rural community in Northern India. Osnovnye etapy evolyutsii [The main stages of evolution], Moscow: GRVL, 1981.
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Alaev L. B. On the methodology of content analysis of Indian epigraphy // Teoriya i metody issledovaniya vostochnoy epigrafiki [Theory and methods of research in Eastern epigraphy].
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Захаров А.О. Ред.: Nagapattinam to Suvarnadwipa: Reflections on the Chola Naval Expeditions to South-East Asia. Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, 2009 // East (Oriens). 2012. № 3.

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Tsygankov Yu. Ya. Toponymika i sotsial'naya struktura rannssrsdnsvskovogo Tamilnada [Toponymy and social structure of the Early Soviet Tamil Nadu]. Ocherki ekonomicheskoi i sotsial'noi istorii Indii [Essays on the Economic and Social History of India], Moscow: GRVL, 1973.

ARE Annual Progress Report of the Assistant Archaeological Superintendent for the Epigraphy, Sothcrn Circle, for the years 1906/07, 1907/08, 1909/10, 1911/12 - 1915/16. Madras, 1907-1916.

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EC Hpigraphia Carnatica. By Lewis Rice. Vols. I-XII. Bangalore, 1898 1905; Vols. XIV-XVI. Mysore, 1943-1968.

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EI - Epigraphia Indica. Vols. I-XXXVIII. Calcutta, Delhi, 1892-1970.

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Nagapattinam to Suvarnadwipa: Reflections on the Chola Naval Expeditions to South-East Asia. Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, 2009.

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