MAN-MADE DISASTERS IN THE OFFSHORE PRODUCTION AND TRANSPORTATION OF HYDROCARBONS THREATEN THE SECURITY OF MANY COUNTRIES

Yu. A. YERSHOV

Doctor of Economics, Professor

Keywords: World Ocean, oil, gas, ecology

At first glance, the topic of this article goes beyond the regional boundaries of our magazine's subject matter - the countries of Asia and Africa. At the same time, possible man-made disasters in oil and gas production pose a danger to the whole world, and the states of the Asian and African regions, of course, too. That is why Professor of the National Research University - Higher School of Economics Yu. A. Yershov, a regular contributor to our magazine, decided to offer this article to the readers ' attention.

Oil, which brings energy, light and heat to the world, turns into a deadly threat to all living things wherever it gets - in the sea, river or on the earth's surface. On April 20, 2010, a massive uncontrolled oil spill occurred on the Deepwalter Horizon oil platform in the Gulf of Mexico. As a result, an oil slick with an area of more than 250 square meters. km began to drift to the coast of the US states of Louisiana and Florida, threatening to cause enormous damage. Up to 45 thousand people, about 6.5 thousand ships and more than 110 aircraft took part in the fight against this oil spill. More than 120,000 claims were filed against the victims of the accident. Losses on the calculation of the culprit of the environmental disaster itself, British Petroleum, amounted to $ 32.2 billion. The total amount of compensation payments may reach $ 20 billion.

Even earlier, in 1989, an Exxon Valdez tanker crashed off the coast of Alaska. At that time, 250,000 birds, 2.8 thousand sea otters and 300 seals became victims of pollution, and the damage to the fish population was incalculable...

It is known that the maximum permissible concentration of oil in water for fisheries reservoirs is considered to be 0.05 mg/l. Thus, 1 ton of oil in the water environment leads to poisoning of 20 million cubic meters of water, and since oil covers the surface with an impermeable film, the damage becomes simply gigantic. According to expert estimates, an average of 6 million tons of oil and petroleum products enter the sea every year. And with the growth of oil production and production of petroleum products and, consequently, an increase in the scale of their transportation, the scale of pollution may increase significantly.

Man is increasingly actively and persistently developing the riches of the World's oceans, and the ocean is increasingly resisting this process. The earthquake that occurred in Japan on March 11 this year was accompanied by a huge tsunami wave, which led to the accident at the Fukushima-1 nuclear power plant and radiation pollution of the sea. Like many other natural disasters, it should serve as a serious warning to those who intend to conduct economic activities in the world's oceans, which are as rich as they are dangerous for human activity.

SOURCE OF LIFE AND WELL-BEING OF PEOPLES

The world ocean, covering an area equal to 71% of the earth's surface, plays an extremely important role for our planet. It acts as the most important part of the biosphere and serves as the "lungs of the Earth", providing a constant supply of oxygen. About 70% of atmospheric oxygen is produced by ocean plankton during photosynthesis1.

In addition, the seas and oceans are a huge area of economic activity of the world's population. Navigable routes pass through them, they provide an extractive base of biological resources, store huge reserves of minerals in their bowels, the development of which, in fact, humanity has just begun.

Of particular note is the importance of the World's oceans as the most important source of food for fish and seafood. Coastal states such as China, Norway, Thailand, the United States, Vietnam, Canada, EU member States, Chile, Indonesia, Iceland, Ecuador, Japan, India, Taiwan, and the Republic of Korea are not only the largest fishing countries, but also large-scale fish and seafood exporters.² At the same time, relatively small farms produce a lot of fish. For example, in Asia, which accounts for 80% of fishing, 70-80% of fishing farms are small-scale ³.

Note in passing that the ocean not only connects states, but also separates them. Along its banks are state borders with all their attributes-fortifications, border posts, naval bases, airfields and ports. For example, Russia, ras-

Table

The most vulnerable key oil supply routes in global trade

Source: IEA. World Energy Outlook, 2009. Paris, 2009, p. 118.

It has 38.8 thousand km of maritime borders, which is 72% of the total length of all its frontiers4.

For our country, the world Ocean serves as the main gateway for its foreign trade operations: about 60% of Russian exports and imports are carried out by sea transport. In the depths of our continental shelf are concentrated huge oil and gas resources5, as well as significant reserves of tin, titanium, ^nickel, cobalt and other minerals.

ocean: GREAT AND ... VULNERABLE

Marine pollution is primarily the result of anthropogenic factors associated with economic activities. Including the infamous "human factor" in our country, as well as the lag of scientific and technological progress that does not have time to provide safe solutions to technological problems. The latter circumstance was the cause of the largest accident on April 20, 2010 in the Gulf of Mexico on the Deepwater Horizon oil platform, which we discussed above. April 20 was the day of the largest environmental disaster in the history of the United States. At the same time, April 20 was also the starting point from which the process of re-evaluating the degree of sufficiency of measures developed and applied to prevent environmental disasters related to the extraction and transportation of oil and petroleum products, and to eliminate their consequences, began on a global scale. There was also a question about the environmental safety of the development of offshore fields both in the Gulf of Mexico itself, where hundreds of oil platforms are already producing oil, and in other areas of the United States and the rest of the world. After all, deep-sea drilling now accounts for 30% of oil production in the United States alone.⁶

Today, 3 thousand deposits have been discovered on the world's shelf, of which about a thousand are already in operation. The seas and oceans now provide people with 32% of their oil and 25% of their gas.⁷ Every third car, plane, tractor, tank is fueled with gasoline from oil extracted from the depths of the sea; the same source feeds every fourth gas stove.

In 2005-2009, more than half of the new oil and gas reserves were discovered on the shelf, and 40% of these deposits were discovered through deep-water and ultra-deep-water drilling.

The accident in the Gulf of Mexico is not the first in the history of world oil production. In the same United States, several thousand small spills occur annually. Large ones occur much less frequently. However, due to the emerging trend of increasing drilling depth, the risks of accidents also began to increase.

Analysis of disaster statistics shows that design errors and failures of technical systems during the production cycle are responsible for 50% of such accidents, extreme natural events - for 30%, navigation accidents - for 15%, and others (including terrorist acts and environmental consequences of military operations) - 5% ⁸.

The degree of insecurity of international shipping, including oil transportation, is indicated by the data of the English insurance company Lloyd. According to her estimates, the world's oceans are ploughed by at least 46 thousand ships calling at more than 2.8 thousand ports, and 1.2 million sailors are constantly at sea, among which it is quite possible that there are intruders. ⁹ Cases of hijacking of tankers for the purpose of obtaining-

ransom payments have already been made several times.

The growing threat from radical Islamists trying to impose their will on the world through terrorist acts creates zones of increased danger in various regions of the world's oceans - a kind of sword of Damocles over the busiest transport arteries (see Table).

The disaster in the Gulf of Mexico, which we have repeatedly discussed above, requires further study of its consequences. It turned out that during the massive oil spill in the disaster zone, the concentration of chlorophyll in the marine environment sharply decreased, which threatens to disrupt water circulation both in the Gulf and in the Gulf Stream. This could have serious climate consequences for the whole of Europe.¹⁰

HAVE ALL THE CONCLUSIONS BEEN DRAWN?

This disaster caused a wide response around the world. In the United States, a temporary moratorium on oil drilling in the Gulf of Mexico was introduced and auctions for offshore areas in the states of Alaska and Virginia were canceled. At the same time, discussions began on the possibility of introducing a ¹⁰-year moratorium on drilling operations in deep-water areas, as a result of which, according to the US Department of Energy, oil production in the country would be reduced by tens of millions of tons per year11.

The US administration has urgently begun to carry out a radical reform in the oil-producing sector of the fuel and energy complex, which includes strengthening control over the development of offshore fields, introducing higher requirements to existing safety standards, and increasing control over the reliability of safety assessments of new projects.

US President Barack Obama has proposed that oil companies should be held financially responsible for the damage caused by the Gulf of Mexico accident. In June 2010, the US Department of Justice launched a criminal and administrative investigation against British Petroleum (platform tenant), Transocean (owner), and Hulliburton (maintenance). "We will punish all those who broke the law. After all, the accident turned into a tragedy, " said US Attorney General Eric Holber12.

Other major oil companies-ExxonMobil, Conoco Philips, Chevron and Royal Dutch Shell-immediately responded to the situation. They announced the creation of the Marine Well Containment Company (MWCC), whose task will be to prevent oil spills from wells up to 3 thousand meters deep. ¹³ Then British Petroleum joined these companies.

The Russian authorities also expressed concern about the situation. In May 2010, Russian President Dmitry Medvedev Medvedev instructed the relevant agencies to develop a draft law " On the protection of the seas of Russia from oil pollution." At the Group of 20 summit in Toronto, our President proposed creating funds that could be used to cover the costs of oil spill response in the event of serious accidents. Funds for such funds should be provided by oil-producing companies.

At the G20 summit in Toronto, with the active participation of the Russian side, a decision was made on the need to exchange experience in the field of marine environment protection and accident prevention in the exploration, production and transportation of oil. The next G20 summit, held in Seoul in November 2010, also called for continuing the exchange of experience in protecting the world's oceans. On November 30, 2010, in a regular Message from the President of the Russian Federation to the Federal Assembly, Dmitry Medvedev set the task of organizing the exchange of best practices in the field of preventing and eliminating the consequences of oil spills at sea.

Russia's concern about possible accidents in offshore production is well-founded, since in the next 10-20 years it is expected that the oil and gas resources of the Sakhalin shelf, the Arctic seas (Barents, Pechora, Kara), and the Caspian Sea will be widely used. Minister of Natural Resources and Ecology of the Russian Federation Yu. Trutnev reported in May 2005 that the continental shelf resources are capable of producing 50 million tons of oil and 150 billion cubic meters of gas in 2015, and 95 million tons of oil and 320 billion ^cubic meters of gas in 2020.14 Based on the forecasts of Rosneft, Lukoil, Gazprom, Severmorneftegaz, Arktikshelfneftegaz, Arktikmorneftegazrazvedka, etc., calculations were made that provide for bringing the share of offshore production in total oil production in Russia in 2020 to 17% and gas - to 21%, and in the future-to 20%. 2030 - up to 23% for oil and up to 27% for gas ¹⁵.

However, the timing and scale of development of the Russian shelf may change significantly if a new procedure for access to its development is introduced. We are talking about the cancellation of amendments to the Federal Law "On Mineral Resources" adopted in 2008, which allow only companies in which the state has a share of at least 51% and which have already been working on the shelf for at least 5 years to produce oil on the continental shelf.

These requirements are met only by Gazprom and Rosneft, which will be able to operate on the shelf, despite their preferred land orientation. The Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment of Russia proposed to allow other Russian companies to work on the shelf, as well as companies with a share of foreign capital up to 50%, as required by existing legislation, but a final decision on this issue has not been made.

REMEMBER THE LESSONS OF THE PAST

The disaster in the Gulf of Mexico helped to move forward the issue of accelerating the development of the continental shelf in the Arctic region.

On January 15, 2011, Prime Minister Vladimir Putin announced that Rosneft and BP had agreed to jointly implement projects on the Russian Arctic shelf in areas with resources of 5 billion tons of oil and 10 trillion cubic meters of gas. Putin said that the government intends to create the most favorable tax and administrative environment for the project.-

spending mode ¹⁶. In the joint venture, 67% of the shares will belong to a Russian company and 33% to a British company.¹⁷ In addition, there will be an asset swap - BP will receive a 9.5% stake in Rosneft in exchange for 5% of its shares. The exchange deal is estimated at $ 7.8 billion. However, the deal was disrupted by the decision of the Stockholm Arbitration Court, but negotiations continue, including with other companies.

It is planned to start oil production on the Arctic shelf in 5-10 years, and the entire program for the development of new fields in the Russian Arctic is designed for 50 years.

Oil production in the Arctic is an objective necessity for Russia. After all, according to the Ministry of Natural Resources of the Russian Federation, more than 75% of the country's deposits are already being developed, and their average depletion is approaching 50%¹⁸. At the same time, the extraction rate of oil from the subsurface is slightly more than 30%, while the global indicators are 40-45%.

The environmental disaster in the Gulf of Mexico has forced us to take a fresh look at another real threat of marine pollution, which is associated with the transportation of oil and petroleum products by tankers, as well as the transportation of liquid energy carriers through pipelines. Here is data on the largest oil spills associated with tanker accidents:

- In March 1967, the tanker Tomry Canyon hit a reef off the Isles of Scilly in south-west England. Then tens of thousands of tons of oil polluted about 270 km of the coast of France and Great Britain.

- In March 1978, the American tanker Amoco Cadiz ran aground off the coast of Brittany (France). About 300 km of the coast is polluted.

- In July 1979, as a result of the collision of the Atlantic Empress and Aegean Captain tankers in the Caribbean Sea, 290 thousand tons of oil were leaked.

- In March 1989, the Exxon Valdez tanker ran aground off the coast of Alaska. Tens of thousands of tons of oil spilled into the sea, 2 thousand km of the coast was polluted.

- In January 1991, the Iraqis who occupied Kuwait poured up to 1.5 million tons of oil from tankers into the waters of the Persian Gulf, and at the same time set fire to 700 wells.

- In November 2002, the Prestige tanker broke up and sank off the coast of Spain. 64 thousand tons of fuel oil fell into the sea. After this incident, the European Union closed access to its waters for single-hulled tankers*.

The volume of global sea transportation in the period 1970-2008 (i.e., in almost ⁴⁰ years) increased 3-fold - from 2.6 billion tons to 8.2 billion tons per year19. During the same period, the total volume of maritime cargo transportation in tonne-miles increased from 10.6 trillion tonne-miles to 32.7 trillion tonne-miles.²⁰ Sea transportation of oil and petroleum products in 2008 accounted for almost 34% of the total volume of sea transportation (2.7 billion tons, including 1.8 billion tons of oil and 0.9 million tons of petroleum products).21. More than 45% of the world's oil produced and about 25% of its petroleum products are transported by sea22. The share of tankers and gas carriers in 2009 was 38% of the total tonnage of the world fleet.

The carrying capacity of the tanker fleet is also growing rapidly: if in 1966 there was only one tanker in the world with a deadweight of more than 160 thousand tons. t, then now there are about 600 of them. The scale of pollution of the world's oceans in the event of an accident of tankers of this class is enormous. What can we say about the possible consequences of accidents of tankers with a carrying capacity of 300 thousand tons and more?!

Accident risks are also associated with the age structure of the fleet. Currently, 40% of tankers, or 13% of their total tonnage, are vessels that are 20 years old or older.²³

GOVERNMENT AND BUSINESS: WHO'S WHO?

Oil companies involved in oil exploration, production and transportation have taken a clear common position on improving international pollution control legislation, taking into account the experience of the Gulf of Mexico disaster. Referring to expert opinions on the possibility of preventing accidents in the Gulf of Mexico through the timely use of improved well design, i.e. through technological solutions to the problem of combating accidents, they propose to improve international legislation in this area and do not consider it productive to develop some common international measures or create any intergovernmental control structure. Oil producers believe that the introduction of new technologies and best practices in the field of work safety should be combined with strict control measures over compliance with the established rules for drilling and extracting hydrocarbons.

Companies do not support proposals to introduce mandatory mutual insurance funds for the entire oil and gas industry and believe that the creation of the largest multinational companies after the accident in the Gulf of Mexico of a joint company Marine Well Containment Company, focused, as mentioned above, on the prevention of force majeure situations, in general, solves all problems.

Unlike oil companies, which seek to minimize state involvement in the system of measures to combat accidents and subsequent oil spills, governments, and primarily the US administration, seek to strengthen their positions in organizing offshore hydrocarbon production. Specially created in July 2010 under the White House, the initiative group on maritime policy published recommendations, the main one of which was to create the so-called National Ocean Council, designed to strengthen the coordination of work in this area on the part of the state.

WHAT LAWS DO THE OCEAN NEED?

Currently, international legislation on marine pollution is quite extensive. The first International Convention for the Prevention of Marine Oil Pollution (OILPOL) was concluded in 1954. Other similar conventions followed, including the UN Convention on the Law of the Sea

* Russian oil. 2010, N 8. P. 71.

1982: it is considered a basic document on the problems of pollution of the world's oceans. Other documents were adopted on the prevention of accidents and pollution of the seas by oil and the elimination of the consequences of such disasters, if they do occur.

The development of international legislation in this area is closely linked to the activities of the International Maritime Organization (IMO), a specialized agency of the United Nations. It was established in 1959 to improve the reliability and safety of navigation and prevent marine pollution from ships and offshore installations. IMO, working on a global scale, has developed more than 40 conventions and agreements, as well as about a thousand codes and recommendations. Its governing body, the Assembly, is composed of representatives from all 163 Member States and meets every two years. Russia actively participates in the work of the IMO.

Currently, more than 98% of the world's merchant fleet complies with the main conventions on international maritime transport and environmental standards established by the IMO. Measures to combat oil spills and leaks, in particular, include::

- States parties to the conventions are required to take all necessary measures to prevent, reduce and control marine pollution from any source, using the best available means for this purpose, without causing harm to other States and their marine environment;

- in the event of marine pollution, States are required to immediately notify other countries and international organizations;

- the State party shall ensure that appropriate compensation for damage caused by marine pollution can be sought as soon as possible by natural or legal persons under its jurisdiction;

- the State shall ensure that ships flying its flag have on board a ship's emergency plan for combating oil pollution;

- each ship carrying more than 2 thousand tons of oil in bulk must have a certificate of financial support for civil liability for damage caused by oil pollution;

- any violation must be punishable under the laws of the State party to the Convention whose flag the violator is flying;

- a strict liability system is being established for tanker owners and mandatory liability insurance is being introduced.

The 1982 Convention on the Law of the Sea established three special bodies: the International Seabed Authority, the International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea, and the Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf - all of which operate within the framework of the United Nations. It was this Commission that the Russian Federation applied to legitimize its rights to the Lomonosov Underwater Ridge and other parts of the Arctic continental shelf.

A special type of threat that causes marine pollution is terrorism at sea and other illegal acts directed against the safety of international navigation, in particular piracy. Crimes of this kind fall within the scope of the Convention for the Suppression of Unlawful Acts against the Safety of Maritime Navigation, adopted in 1988, and the Protocol for the Suppression of Unlawful Acts against the Safety of Fixed Platforms Located on the Continental Shelf. 95 States have become parties to the above-mentioned Convention, including Russia, which ratified it in 2001 with the reservation that the Constitution of the Russian Federation prohibits the extradition of Russian citizens to other states. There is also a "Regional Seas Program" adopted by the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), covering a number of regions.

The national legislation of many riparian countries is also very diverse, taking into account both the provisions of international conventions and the laws of individual States that reflect their national specifics. The laws of Norway, the United States, and the United Kingdom are considered particularly high-quality. Unfortunately, Russian legislation on the protection of the marine environment is characterized by extreme fragmentation, vagueness, dispersion in numerous legal documents, the absence of a basic law and the presence of a significant number of secondary legislation.

Meanwhile, it is our country, which has the longest coastline and huge areas of the continental shelf, more than any other state, that needs advanced, effective, and versatile marine environmental legislation. In particular, the law "On the Protection of the Seas of the Russian Federation from Oil pollution", a draft of which has long been being developed in the State Duma, is extremely necessary.

Analysis of the current international legal framework for the protection, conservation and prevention of marine pollution allows us to conclude that by now the world, in general, has formed a versatile legal framework, represented by several dozen documents - conventions, protocols, treaties, etc., which cover all the main types of marine conservation measures. It can be argued that a new direction has been formed in world jurisprudence - "environmental legislation of the World Ocean", which extends to almost all countries and covers all types of pollution. At the same time, the diversity of norms spread across numerous international instruments calls for a single universal environmental code for the use and protection of the world's oceans.

WHAT SHOULD BE THE "MARITIME CONSTITUTION"?

Most international legal documents are devoted to pollution of the marine environment during transportation of oil, petroleum products and other materials in liquid form( in bulk), as well as pollution of the marine environment-

waste management, etc. But in the world legal practice, there is virtually no unified legislation dealing with the problems of marine oil pollution as a result of production activities for the exploration, production, storage and transportation of oil from fields, including through pipelines. We need a kind of "Maritime Constitution" - a law that establishes the most important standards for protecting the" health " of the World's oceans." The appearance of such a document would certainly be extremely useful, given the prospects for the expected increase in the scale of offshore drilling.

This document could bring double benefits to the international community. It would address the environmental challenges of protecting the marine environment and restoring it after oil spills are eliminated, while additionally ensuring international energy security by regulating the balance between supply and demand for hydrocarbons, which is inevitably disrupted by temporary interruptions in the supply of oil due to accidents and catastrophes.

The need to develop a new comprehensive document on the protection of the marine environment also directly follows from the forecasts for the development of the global oil and gas industry, which will inevitably have to accelerate the development of continental shelves with the use of increasingly complex deep-sea and ultra-deep-sea drilling. The development of such a document is supported by the expected growth of sea transportation of oil, and the increasing threats to peaceful navigation from terrorists and pirates.

In my opinion, a new document on the protection of the marine environment that is being developed would make sense to provide for::

- creation of an international organization for technological monitoring of large oil projects on the high seas, which would ensure greater reliability and safety of the projects being implemented;

- organization of investment monitoring aimed at ensuring sufficient investment in measures to protect the marine environment from pollution and allocation of sufficient funds for scientific and technological research;

- creation of an international organization for insurance against the risks of accidents and marine pollution in oil production, especially in climatically unfavorable areas and in the introduction of new methods of deep-sea production;

- more active participation of international financial institutions in financing large-scale projects aimed at improving environmental safety in the development of World Ocean resources;

- organization of permanent operational integrated and full-scale satellite monitoring of the ecological state of the World Ocean waters at the locations of oil production platforms, as well as on the busiest tanker routes, while providing a reliable disaster warning system;

- application of the provisions of the UN Charter regarding the use of force in response to deliberate or negligent actions that lead to marine pollution and environmental disasters;

- the creation (possibly under the auspices of the United Nations) of an international emergency force to deal with both natural and man-made disasters, including marine pollution, equipped with appropriate material resources and technical means to respond urgently to an emergency situation.

Given the huge role of the world's oceans for the countries of Asia and the Pacific, it is advisable to include in the agenda of the upcoming Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) Forum in 2012 the issue of developing global measures to protect the world's oceans from pollution.

Russia , a major maritime and energy power, is interested both in the cleanliness of its seas and in maintaining international energy security. Therefore, we can count on its active role in developing measures aimed at radically solving the problems of protecting the world's oceans.

In November 2010, the Government of our country sent a draft Convention on ensuring International Energy Security through diplomatic channels to the leadership of a number of States, offering to start negotiations at the expert level on its adoption. Considering the possibility of accidents related to oil production and transportation as a threat to international energy security, the draft Convention also provides for the development of a Protocol on Measures to Prevent Major Accidents in the Offshore Exploration, Production and Transportation of Oil, as well as on the elimination of their Consequences.

I would like to hope that the international community will carefully consider this initiative of the Russian Federation, which is aimed, among other things, at treating the already seriously ill World Ocean.

^{Kolodkin A.} 1, Gutsudyuk V., Bobrova Yu.Mirovoi okean [World Ocean]. Mezhdunarodno-pravovoi rezhim [International Legal Regime], Moscow: Status, 2007, p. 314.

² World Trade Organization, World Trade Report. 2010, Geneva, 2010, p. 210.

³ FAO Extrabugetary Programme on Fisheries and Aquaculture for Poverty Alleviation and Food Security. Rome, 27-30 October, 2009, p. 5.

^{Voitolovsky G. K.} 4 Long-term goals. Moscow, SOPS, 2010, p. 4.

⁵ Ibid.

⁶ Oil and Gas Journal. 2010. September 6, p. 34.

^{Vinogradova O.} 7 Gulf of Mexico and Iceland: what do they have in common? // Oil and gas vertical. 2010, N 12.

^{Suprunenko O.} 8, Ovsyannikov A. If tomorrow breaks... / / Oil of Russia. 2010, N 9.

⁹ Rossiyskaya gazeta. 3.04.2004.

¹⁰ Nezavisimaya gazeta. Appendix N-G Energy. 2011. January 11.

¹¹ Oil and Gas Journal. 2010. July 19.

¹² Expert. 2010, June 7-13.

¹³ Nezavisimaya gazeta. 2010, September 14.

¹⁴ Russian oil. 2010, N 9.

¹⁵ Ibid.

¹⁶ RIA Novosti. 15.01.2011.

¹⁷ Nezavisimaya gazeta. 17.01.2011.

¹⁸ Interview of the Secretary of the Russian Security Council N. Patrushev to Rossiyskaya Gazeta 14.01.2011.

¹⁹ UNCTAD, Review of Maritime Transport, 2009. UN, N.Y., 2009, p. 8.

²⁰ Ibid., p. 76.

²¹ Ibid., p. 8.

²² Ibid., p. 8; BP Statistical Review of World Energy. 2009, June.

²³ UNCTAD. Review of Maritime Transport, 2009. Geneva. 2009, p. 41.

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