On May 14-15, 2014, the third conference within the framework of the research project "India: Prospects for Modern Development"was held at the Center for Indian Studies of the Institute of Oriental Studies of the Russian Academy of Sciences. Conference topic: "Water resources of India: Economic, political, social aspects". Presentations were made by representatives of scientific, information and government circles, including speakers from the Institute of Internal Affairs of the Russian Academy of Sciences, IMEMO RAS, HSE, RSUH, the Russian Foreign Ministry and RIA Novosti. The conference was dedicated to the memory of O. V. Malyarov, Chief Researcher of the Institute of Information Technology of the Russian Academy of Sciences. It began with the presentation of his book "The Public Sector of the Indian Economy "(2014) and the memorial volume "The Fate of a Scientist in the Era of Change" (2014).

Water is a key element for the emergence and maintenance of life on our planet, the most important strategic resource necessary for all types of human activity. Washed by two oceans, delineated by the beds of many large and small rivers, and replete with natural and artificial reservoirs, modern India considers providing water to its growing population and developing economy to be one of the most acute problems. Water has always been considered an unlimited renewable resource. However, today the whole world is already faced with the problem of a shortage of clean drinking water in cities, a shortage of water for industrial and irrigation needs. In India, these problems are extremely acute. Population growth and dramatic changes in the economy have raised the question of competition between industry, agriculture and the domestic sector for access to water, which in the twentieth century turned out to be a limited and ever-dwindling resource. The concept of a "water crisis" is firmly established in India, and the country's future largely depends on how to manage the available sources of fresh water.

The water factor is equally important in politics, whether it is relations between the states of India or between India and its neighbors. All this makes the topic chosen for the conference extremely relevant. In their reports, the speakers touched upon various aspects of water use and water supply, which made it possible to cover the widest possible range of problems.

From the point of view of the domestic life of the country, the growing shortage of fresh water is a very serious constraint on sustainable development. A.V. Akimov's report on this topic opened the first day of the conference. The author presented the results of his research, including an impressive table of comparative data on modern water supply in the world's regions, as well as his own forecast of the development of the situation until 2100. The results were disappointing: India and its neighboring countries, which still suffer greatly from water scarcity, will remain the most low-income in terms of fresh water reserves per capita in the future. At the same time, by the end of the century, India will have to close the list of civilizations in terms of water availability, lagging 40-45% behind China and Africa, and dozens of times behind the countries of Europe and Latin America.

The XII Five-year plan focuses on water resources management, including surface and groundwater, water mapping, irrigation reforms, water prices, and the freshwater needs of cities and industry. However, in the section of the plan on tasks for the development of scientific research, there is no clear focus on the development of new technologies in the water sector. Indian scientists prepare only partial solutions in this area. For example, nanotechnology is considered promising for desalination and water purification.

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V. G. Rastiannikov (IB RAS) identified the main factors and problems that negatively affect the water supply and water supply in India. Over the past 60 years, the country has experienced the largest negative climate shift, especially noticeable since the 1990s. There is a natural reduction in the amount of precipitation, which has already decreased (over the past 20 years) by almost 8%. The disappearance of water is accompanied by an increase in high temperatures, drying up of channels and deforestation of the country. In addition to reducing the total amount of available water, the process of lowering ground water is proceeding at an accelerated pace, sometimes up to a critical level (a state close to the loss of used water from operation). The situation is aggravated by the lack of legislative regulation of the use of groundwater. Simultaneously with the development of underground water management, the country is experiencing a major metamorphosis, manifested in the transition from biological to chemical forms of water pollution. Currently, 60% of the 593 districts surveyed have problems related to the quality of underground water, or lack water, or both.

The conference addressed the problems of water supply in urban and rural areas. The report by A.M. Goryacheva (Institute of Water Resources of the Russian Academy of Sciences) emphasized that increasing scarcity and declining quality of fresh water in cities are associated with accelerated urbanization in recent decades. The urban economy's share of GDP production increased from 50% in 1980 to 75% in the 2000s, but no Indian city receives water 24 hours a day, 7 days a week. In 22 of the country's 32 largest cities, water supply is in a critical state - the gap between demand and supply reaches 70%. According to the latest census, only 32.7% of the housing stock is connected to water supply networks. From 40 to 70% of the water supplied to cities is not used effectively: it is lost in the form of leaks in rotten pipes and due to unauthorized connections. Within cities, there is a huge territorial and social disparity in access to water: poor neighborhoods and slums have extremely limited access to tap water (one street tap for several families).

The hitherto un-reformed economic model leads to the fact that the money received from the population for water use covers only 30-40% of the cost of maintaining water supply networks.

In addition, large cities have a huge polluting impact on the environment. Some previously completely clean rivers turn into real gutters. The report of V. P. Kashin (IB RAS) illustrated this process by the example of the Jamna River , a right tributary of the Ganges, which "waters and feeds" a tenth of the population of India. Currently, the Jamna is a disappearing river. 82% of its water is used to irrigate the fields of Haryana, 15% is consumed by Uttar Pradesh and Delhi, and only 3% remains in the riverbed. According to environmentalists, the Jamna River is the second or third most polluted river in the world. This is the largest landfill in India, absorbing up to 58% of the waste of the metropolitan area. All the previously adopted projects to save the river and the funds allocated for its cleaning did not justify themselves.

I. V. Deryugina (IV RAS) made a multi-pronged analysis of irrigation issues and related problems of agricultural development. In India, the used irrigation potential (89.4 million ha) is 84% of the created one and only 64% of the maximum one. The share of ground-based small-scale irrigation is on average 52% of the net irrigated area, while in some states it is predominant: in Gujarat, 80% of the area is irrigated using wells, in Punjab-76%, in Uttar Pradesh-76%, in Maharashtra - 69%. Indian scientists believe that the future of irrigation in the country lies in the expansion of ground irrigation due to its economic feasibility and geographically uneven structure of water use. However, according to I. V. Deryugina, it is impossible to take such a straightforward approach to assessing the effectiveness of surface (channel) irrigation, since most of the investments in it come from the public sector, the effectiveness of which, by definition, cannot be measured only in terms of profit. And we should not forget that whether it is surface or ground irrigation, all of them are formed from the same hydraulic system.

Several presentations focused on water use in individual states of India. A. A. Bychkova (HSE) discussed the hydrography of Nagaland, one of the most water - rich states in the country (2000-2500 mm of precipitation per year). The main water resources of Nagaland are land-based reservoirs: rivers, mountain streams, springs, ponds. The Brahmaputra basin with its four major tributaries - the Doyang, Dhansiri, Dikhu, and Tizu - covers 65% of the state's land area. Groundwater potential is underutilized, mainly in the southern part of the state.

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Hydrological studies provide a picture of fine-grained sandy aquifers, indicating a low water yield and a piezometric surface depth of more than 6 m. The chemical composition of groundwater is heterogeneous. In some places, there is an increased iron content. The Mihki Salt River flows in the Kifire district. Residents of Sangrpur village have been preparing salt cakes since ancient times, which were used as a unit in the exchange of goods. The Dzudu and Shilloi lakes are considered the abode of spirits. Shilloi water is used in agriculture. However, even to approach oz. Dzudu is still considered dangerous to humans.

In terraced rice cultivation, an irrigation system is used, consisting of a network of channels and bamboo pipes, through which water from mountain streams and small rivers is fed to the terraces. Rainwater is collected in artificially dug reservoirs. Fish are bred in small artificial reservoirs in rice fields.

The main agricultural activity in Nagaland is carried out during the monsoon period (May-September), when the main amount of precipitation falls. The dry season (October-April) creates a stressful situation: streams and artificially created channels dry up. Jum (slash-and-burn hoe farming with a cycle of 9-10 years) it leads to significant deforestation and a drop in water retention capacity. Scarcity causes local conflicts over the use of water resources.

The opposite situation is observed in the state of Rajasthan, as it was demonstrated in the report of E. Y. Karachkova (IB RAS). To the north of the Aravali mountain range, which cuts diagonally across the state (from northeast to southwest), is India's largest Thar Desert. Open natural water sources (rivers and lakes) are completely absent here. A few Rajasthan rivers are located to the south of the mountain range, but only one of them (the Chambal River)has a channel does not dry out in winter. All lakes in Rajasthan, with the exception of the Sambhar salt Lake, are of artificial origin. Most of them were created in the Middle Ages by building dams that block riverbeds, so the water level in these reservoirs decreases significantly in the winter months, when the rivers that feed them become shallow and dry up.

In such harsh natural conditions, the key to survival and farming for residents of the state is the exploitation of underground water and the preservation of rainwater during the July monsoon. Hydrographic scientists are alarmed to note a significant drop in the level of groundwater in Rajasthan over the past decade and an excessive content of nitrates in them, and in 2011-2012, as a result of weak seasonal precipitation, certain districts of the state experienced a drought, which resulted in crop loss and livestock loss.

During the conference, issues of an anthropological nature related to the use of rivers, in particular for the construction of hydroelectric power plants, were considered. To do this, vast areas are flooded, which requires the relocation of entire villages. Speakers A.V. Ivanov and V. O. Filatova (both RSUH) showed how this process was carried out during the construction of the cascade of hydroelectric power plants on the Sileru River.

E. A. Pakhomov (RIA Novosti) spoke about the 2010 flood in Pakistan, as a result of which 20% of the country's territory was flooded, 20 million people were affected, and 1,700 people died.

Social aspects related to water consumption were revealed in the report of E. S. Yurlova (IB RAS). The emphasis was placed on the model of water use in the Indian family. E. S. Yurlova reminded that in traditional Indian society, water is a sacred substance.

27% of the rural population and 6% of urban residents do not have access to drinking water. More than 70% of the water consumed in villages does not meet WHO standards. 80% of all diseases in the village, 21% of infectious diseases and 20% of deaths among children under 5 years of age are related to unsafe water consumption. Access to clean water is particularly limited for vulnerable and backward segments of the population in villages (only about 600 thousand villages - 70% of the population). In the villages, 60% of primary schools are not provided with drinking water and 89% do not have toilets, which affects the low level of school attendance by children, especially girls.

A similar situation with water and toilets has developed in urban slums, where more than 65 million people live. At the same time, their number is constantly growing. Overall, 53% of households do not have any toilets. A reasoned conclusion was made that lack of water increases unsanitary conditions and causes an increase in maternal and child mortality.

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A separate section at the last conference was devoted to international aspects of water use. F. N. Yurlov (IB RAS) presented a comparative analysis of water availability in different countries of the world, focusing on the situation in India and possible ways of its development.

India is among the top 10 countries with 60% of the world's total renewable water resources. However, it ranks only 9th in this list, behind Brazil (1st place) by 4 times, Russia (2nd place)-by more than 2 times, and China (6th place). - one and a half times.

Among water users, India ranks 8th in the world (99 liters / day per person for all purposes, including domestic consumption). Ahead of it are: The United States - 575 liters / day, Japan-374, Mexico-366, France-287, Brazil-187. China is second to India in this indicator-86 liters / day. The water consumption poverty threshold is 50 liters / day.

The structure of water use in India differs markedly from other countries. A characteristic feature is that a huge share of water (83%, as noted above) is consumed in agriculture, 12% in industry, and only 5% meet the needs of households. For comparison, similar indicators for: 1) the world on average - 69%, 23 and 8; 2) Europe-33%, 54 and 13; 3) Russia-53%, 38 and 9%.

Over the past 100 years, per capita water consumption in India has decreased by more than 4.5 times. This means that with the current inefficient use of water, in 5-10 years India will be even more acutely aware of its shortage, and in subsequent years this deficit may reach a critical level. The situation is compounded by the rapid pace of urbanization in the country: the urban population consumes significantly more water.

The primary task of the State is to make efficient use of water resources, which would ensure sustainable development.

S. N. Kamenev (IB RAS) compared in detail the issues of water supply and irrigation of land in India and Pakistan. The main problem with drinking water in India and Pakistan is its poor quality. In cities, tap water often contains a considerable number of pathogens of gastrointestinal diseases. For example, in March 2014, a polio virus was detected in the water supply systems of Islamabad and Rawalpindi.

As for the use of water for irrigation, two problems come to the fore. One of them is associated with waterlogging and salinization of the soil as a result of large-scale irrigation of agricultural land, primarily occupied under rice crops. The Governments of both Countries provide for the allocation of certain funds in their budgets to combat these phenomena, but, as in many other cases, financial resources for these purposes are clearly insufficient, and many lands fall out of agricultural circulation. The second problem is related to the lack of water in dry seasons.

A significant conflict potential is represented by the joint use of transboundary rivers. The downstream State becomes a "hostage of the situation", completely dependent on its higher neighbor. A way out is possible only if bilateral or multilateral legal mechanisms are developed.

The unresolved disputes on this issue between India and Bangladesh were analyzed in the reports of A. Y. Gerbst (MFA of the Russian Federation) and Ya.O. Sadovnikova (IMEMO RAS). In recent years, relations between India and Bangladesh have clearly shown a positive trend in such areas as trade relations, environmental protection and anti-terrorist activities. Despite the established dialogue and finding common points of view on the problems of providing water resources, there are still issues on which agreement has not yet been reached. "Old" and "new" problems are concentrated in a tight knot of contradictions: the Farakka dam, the Tipaimukh dam, the unresolved issue of the agreement on the joint use of water resources of the Tista River. The long-standing unresolved problems of the distribution of cross-border water resources reflect the fundamental lack of Indian federalism, the dominance of regional interests over national ones, and represent a potential source of international conflicts.

The controversy surrounding the use of cross-border rivers between India and Pakistan is similar. N. A. Zamaraeva and T. O. Svinarchuk (both IB RAS) presented their reports on this topic.

The Indus River Water Treaty, signed in 1960, is an example of a well-developed international legal document that defines the rules for the use of waters in a transboundary river basin. It is particularly interesting that it existed

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It has remained unchanged for more than 50 years in the context of very tense relations between the signatory countries. Until now, the mechanisms set out in it have made it possible to resolve water disputes between India and Pakistan using legal instruments. However, in India, there are growing calls for a review of the treaty, which are justified by the fact that when it was concluded, the then authorities showed "excessive generosity", giving too much to Pakistan. It is also noted that since the conclusion of the agreement, the situation has changed significantly, and therefore, in its present form, the document no longer meets the goals set for it. Islamabad also insists on revising the "outdated" document. Explaining its position, Islamabad emphasizes that India's commissioning of dams in "occupied" Kashmir will sharply limit the supply of water to Pakistan.

The speakers reviewed the positions of the ruling circles and the expert community of the two countries regarding the treaty and pointed out the differences in approaches to the problem in India and Pakistan.

T. O. Svinarchuk highlighted a similar set of unresolved problems between India and China, which share rivers such as the Brahmaputra, Indus, its major tributaries and many other rivers originating in Tibet. At the same time, China does not have an agreement on joint water use with India, as with other countries. This issue is particularly relevant in light of the active construction of dams on these rivers in both China and India. Any changes in the flow affect the lives of a huge number of people who live along the banks and for whom these rivers are the main source of fresh water for drinking, irrigation of agricultural land, energy and other needs.

N. B. Lebedeva and S. L. Rabeya's reports on the use of water resources were a logical continuation of the topic, where the focus was shifted towards maritime borders and international disputes related to their establishment. It is of great importance in the economic (trade and maritime communications, delivery and development of resources, fishing), political and strategic (ensuring the security of the country, expanding military-strategic maritime relations with other states) and research fields. Multilateral cooperation on this issue is necessary and justified.

Taking into account the increasing role of marine areas in the strategic context, the Indian leadership consistently develops marine strategies and doctrines (2004, 2007, 2009), which reflect both shifts and new risks in the world, the World and the Indian Ocean, as well as India's changing position in the global community. Significant modernization of the Navy, an increase in the number of naval bases, ports, etc. have been undertaken. In the future, India will probably need to redouble its efforts in this area due to its active promotion in the Asia-Pacific region and the consequences of the formation of the Indo-Pacific Strategic Theater.

S. L. Rabey linked territorial disputes with the fossil resources of the continental shelf. In the early 2000s, the Indian Government launched an extensive underwater mission in the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal, which resulted in two applications to UNCLOS to expand the area of the Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ). The additional area claimed by India is 1.2 million square kilometers, which is compared to 2.3 million square kilometers already legalized jointly. km is comparable to the country's mainland area.

India's application immediately provoked a response from Bangladesh, with which the maritime boundary has remained a subject of dispute since secession in 1971.The two countries have a maritime boundary of about 180 km, but due to riverbed changes caused by soil erosion and frequent flooding, establishing a maritime boundary is difficult. A similar situation is observed between India and Pakistan: they are contesting a sea area of about 250 square miles.

According to many experts, methane hydrate is one of the most promising areas of shelf development and research. Estimates of the reserves of this type of energy resource vary widely, but even the International Energy Agency recognizes that this may be the most common type of hydrocarbon fuel. Research of gas hydrate reservoirs has been actively conducted by India since the late 1990s, and already at the moment proven reserves amount to 50 billion cubic meters. m. A large share of the area of sedimentary basins 43% belonging to India is located within the marine EEZ at a depth of more than 200 m, i.e. in the zone of stability of gas hydrate reservoirs. Thus, under the waters of the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal (theoretically), huge mineral reserves are hidden. It is no coincidence that most of the new hydrocarbon deposits discovered recently were offshore.

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It can be assumed that with the continuation of deep-sea geophysical research and progress in exploration technologies, the issues of establishing and expanding sea borders will become particularly relevant. In many countries, the already established EEZ is many times larger than the land area. Therefore, the desire to expand its own maritime zone for countries with a high population density and a small area of control at sea (such as India and especially Bangladesh) is quite natural.

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