Introductory article, translated from Arabic and commented by A. A. YANKOVSKAYA

Ibn Battuta's " Journey "(1304-1368) holds a special place among medieval Arabic accounts of the Malay world. While most of the extant Arabic descriptions of the region are compilations based on various written and oral sources, Ibn Battuta's account is one of the few accounts of Southeast Asia that are supposedly based on eye-witness accounts. In 1345-1347, the traveler sailed from India to China and back through the Strait of Malacca, visiting the ports of Sumatra and the Malacca Peninsula on the way. Despite the small volume and difficulty in reconstructing the chronology and route, Ibn Battuta's reports serve as a valuable source for the history of the Malay world. However, they have not yet been published in Russian. There is no Russian translation of the full text of Travel. At various times, separate extracts from the essay were published in our country, but the chapters devoted to Southeast Asia remain outside the scope of these publications.

Keywords: Ibn Battuta, Sumatra, Malacca Peninsula, Middle Ages, travel.

Ibn Battuta's travels date back to the second quarter of the 14th century and cover a vast area from Spain to China. Their description has come down to us in a work called "A Gift to contemplatives about the curiosities of cities and the wonders of travel" (translated by I. Y. Krachkovsky [Krachkovsky, 2004, p. 421]), also known as "The Journey of Ibn Battuta". It is a literary treatment of the traveler's stories, made in Fez by Ibn Juzayyem, a court writer of the Moroccan Sultan Abu Inan (1348-1358). The text of the "Journey" was repeatedly rewritten and preserved in the form of several incomplete manuscripts stored in the Paris National Library. In 1853-1858, French orientalists Sh. Defremeri and B. R. Sanguinetti prepared a combined Arabic text and translation of the work, which appeared in four volumes [Voyages..., 1853-1858]. This edition is still the most authoritative, and it is based on later translations of The Journey into European languages and its editions in Arab countries.

Ibn Battuta's reports about Southeast Asia attracted the attention of researchers quite early. The first person to address them was the French orientalist E. Dulaurier. In 1847, even before the publication of Sh. Defremeri and B. R. Sanguinetti, he published in the Journal Asiatique an Arabic text and translation of fragments of the "Journey" containing descriptions of the country of Barahnakar, Sumatra, the Malacca Peninsula, the Tawalisi country and Ibn Battuta's return journey from China [Description..., 1847]. E. Dulaurier relied on four manuscripts from the Paris National Library, including In the notes, he cites discrepancies between different Travel lists. The researcher provided his translation with detailed comments. Subsequently, the journey of Ibn Battuta from India to China, including his voyage through the Strait of Malacca, was addressed by G. Fsrran [Relations..., 1914, p. 426-458], G. Mjik [Die Reise..., 1911] and G. Yule [1916, p. 1-166]. Researchers and translators of The Journey in general, as well as authors of works devoted to medieval sources on the history of the region, inevitably encountered the need to interpret the traveler's stories about Southeast Asia (see [Wheatley, 1961; Tibbetts, 1979]). References to Ibn Battuta can be found in numerous studies and articles on the history and historical geography of Southeast Asia.

Nevertheless, it is this part of the" Journey", devoted to traveling east of India, that has often caused distrust among researchers, whose opinions differ from the criticism of individual authors.-

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There were no such communications until the complete denial of Ibn Battuta's journey to China. These doubts are due to confusion in chronology and toponymy, as well as the presence of a number of unlikely statements. In any case, it is believed that the traveler reached at least the southern regions of China (Dunn, 1986, p.3, 252-253), which means that he also visited Southeast Asia. In addition, Ibn Battuta's accounts of the region are confirmed by Chinese sources and reports of Marco Polo (Yamamoto, 1936, p. 103), and also contain a number of ethnographic details that could hardly be reproduced from someone else's words. According to J. R. Tibbetts, the confusion is most likely caused by the fact that some messages are in the wrong order, and some of the source material was lost [Tibbetts, 1979, p.13].

Before going to China, Ibn Battuta spent many years traveling in the Middle East, visited the Golden Horde and Central Asia, and also lived for eight years in India at the court of Sultan Muhammad ibn Tughlaq (1325-1351) in Delhi. In 1345, he sailed from Bengal and arrived in the country he calls Barakhnakar. The exact location of this country has not been established, and it is assumed that it could have been located on the Andaman, Nicobar Islands, or on the western coast of Burma (Yule, 1916, p. 93; Tibbetts, 1979, p.97). From there, the traveler went to Samudra on the north coast of Sumatra, after which he continued through the Strait of Malacca, stopping on the way in the port city of Kakula. After leaving it, Ibn Battuta spent more than two months on the road and arrived in the mysterious country of Tawalisi, the description of which is so contradictory that it raises doubts about its existence. Researchers have placed it on Kalimantan, Sulawesi, and the Sulu Archipelago, but it is more likely to be located on the eastern coast of Indochina (Yamamoto, 1936; Tibbetts, 1979, p. 98; Dunn, 1986, p. 264). The story of Ibn Battuta's return journey from China is brief and consists of a description of the encounter with the Roc bird and the traveler's repeated visit to Samudra. From Sumatra, Ibn Battuta went to India, and from there returned to the Middle East.

The fragments of the Journey dedicated to Samudra and Kakula were chosen because these toponyms are more or less definitely located in the Malay-Indonesian region, and their descriptions can serve as a source for its history. Ibn Battuta traveled along the sea trade route, along which the port city-states were located on the shores of Southeast Asia. The time of the traveler's visit was during the period of their heyday, associated with the growth of trade between the Middle East and China. Such trading ports were probably Samudra and Kakula.

Samudra Pasey Sultanate, one of the first Muslim states of Nusantara, is known from Malay historical records, as well as Chinese and European sources. Ibn Battuta's stories about Samudra vividly reflect the court rules of this sultanate. Interesting descriptions of the grand reception in the palace, the ceremony of gifting clothes and the wedding of the son of Sultan Malik al-Zahir. Some of the realities described by Ibn Battuta were widespread in the countries of the medieval East, while others are specific to the states of the Malay archipelago, and references to them can be found in the Malay chronicles. The traveler provides a number of details regarding greeting forms and etiquette norms, family and marriage relations, buildings and interiors, traditional costumes, food and consumption of betel. All this is a rich material, still not fully studied, and makes "Journey" not only a historical, but also an ethnographic source. In addition, such details are confirmed in chronicles and modern ethnographic reality, which testifies to the reliability of Ibn Battuta's stories.

While Samudra is known from Malay chronicles and other sources, the place name Kakula is found only in Arabic texts. The location of this port has not been established, but it is likely to be located on the west coast of Indochina, possibly on the Malacca Peninsula. In addition to Ibn Battuta, references to Kakula can be found in al-Ya'qubi (IX c.), Buzurg ibn Shahryar (X c.), Abu Dulaf (X c.), al-Idrisi (XII c.), al-Qazwini (XIII c.), Ibn Sa'id (XIII c.) and Ibn Iyas (XVI c.There may be parallels between the Kakula and Ko-ku-lo Chinese sources (Tibbetts, 1979, p. 133). Arabic texts depict a port city-state located on the coast at the confluence of a river with the sea. A number of authors agree that the main product of local exports was the aloe tree. In Ibn Battuta's account, Kakula also appears as a major port city. The mention of piracy and tolls suggests that it was located on a busy trade route. Ibn Battuta describes the city and his visit to the ruler's court, as well as details on the spices and incense of Southeast Asia. A story about a kind of ritual suicide committed at the Sultan's court,

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as far as we know, it has no analogues in other sources. Researchers of "Travel", as a rule, leave it without comments.

The following is a translation of passages from Ibn Battuta's Travels on Samudra and Kakula. Translated from the Arabic text published by Sh. Defremeri and B. R. Sanguinetti [Voyages..., vol. IV, 1858, p. 228 247, 306-309].

I

Twenty-five days later, 1 we arrived at the island of Jawah 2, from which the incense of al-jawah 3 originates. We saw it after we had traveled for half a day. It is a green, blooming [island]. Most of the trees [growing there] are coconut and areca palms, cloves, Indian aloe 4, ash-shaki and al-barki trees 5, mango, jamun 6, sweet oranges and camphor cane 7. Residents of Jaua buy and sell for small coins and raw Chinese gold. Many spices and perfumes are found only in the lands of the infidels, while in the lands of the Muslims there are fewer of them.

When we arrived at the marina, locals came up to us in small boats carrying coconuts, bananas, mangoes and fish. According to local custom, they give it to merchants, and they reward them as best they can. The Assistant Port Manager 8 also came up to us. After checking the merchants who were with us, he allowed us to go ashore. We landed at Porto, a large seaside settlement. There are buildings that are called as-sarha9. From there it's four miles to the city 10. Behrouz, the assistant portmaster, wrote to the Sultan informing him of my arrival. [The Sultan] ordered the Emir Daulasa, the noble Qadi 11 Amyar Sayyid 12 al-Shirazi, Taj al-Din al-Isfahani, and other faqihs to meet me 13. They rode out for this purpose and brought horses, one of which belonged to the Sultan. My companions and I rode on horseback and arrived at the Sultan's capital, Sumutra 14, a large and beautiful city surrounded by a wooden wall with wooden towers.

The story of the Sultan of Jaua

Sultan al-Malik al-Zahir, 15 a most worthy and noble ruler, belongs to the Shafi'i madhhab, 16 and favors the faqihs who visit his court to read and talk. He fights a lot with the infidels and often makes military campaigns. He is so modest that he goes to Friday prayers on foot. The people of his country are Shafi'i, and they willingly fight against the infidels, voluntarily accompanying [the Sultan on campaigns]. They have subdued the infidels who live in the neighborhood, and they pay them jizya 17 in exchange for peace.

The story of how we arrived at the palace of [the Sultan| and his grace to us

When we arrived at the Sultan's palace, we saw spears stuck in the sides of the road in front of him. They serve as a sign that you need to dismount, no one passes them on horseback 18. We dismounted [at this point], entered michoir19] and saw the sultan's deputy, who is called the mainstay of the state [20]. He got up and greeted us, and they shook hands with them, and we sat down with him. [The governor] wrote a message to the Sultan, informing him [of our arrival], sealed it and gave it to one of the servants. He received an answer [written] on the back of [the message]. Then a servant brought a bundle, and this is a bundle of cloth. The governor took it in his hand, then took me by the hand and led me to a room called fardakhana (shaped like zardakhana, only with the letter fa ' at the beginning). This is the place of his daytime rest, because the sultan's deputy usually comes to Michoir after dawn and leaves it only late at night. The same applies to vezirs and high-ranking emirs.

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21 And he took out of the bundle three girdles: one of pure silk, another of silk and cotton, and the third of silk and linen. Then he took out three articles of clothing like girdles, which are called underclothes, three garments of various kinds, which are called middle dresses, three garments of wool, one of which was white, and three turbans. I put on one of the belts instead of the trousers, as is their custom, and a dress of each kind. And my companions took what was left 22. [We were] served food, mostly rice, then served barley drink 23, and then betel 24, which means the end [of the meal]. We took it and went up, and the governor went up with us. We left Michoir and rode on horseback, and the governor rode with us.

We were taken to a garden surrounded by a wooden fence. At the back of the garden was a wooden structure covered with painted and unpainted cotton velvets called al-mukhmalat. Inside the house there were beds made of bamboo, and on them were quilts made of silk, light blankets and pillows, which are called al-baualisht26. We sat down there, and the governor was with us. Then the Emir of Daulas brought two female slaves and two male slaves and said to me, " The Sultan tells you that this is in proportion to our capabilities, and not to the capabilities of Sultan Muhammad."27. Then the governor went out, and the Emir of Daulas stayed with me. I knew him because he was on an embassy trip to the Sultan [Muhammad] in Delhi. I asked him, " When can I see the Sultan?". And he said: "Our custom is that the Sultan does not receive a new arrival until three days later, so that [the guest] can rest from the journey and recover."

We stayed [there] for three days. We were served food three times a day, and brought fruit and gifts in the morning and evening. On the fourth day, Friday, the Emir of Daulas came to me and said, " The Sultan will receive you at the Maksura mosque after prayer." I went to the mosque and performed Friday prayers with its attendant, Kairan. Then I entered the Sultan's presence and saw Qadi Amir Sayyid and his disciples on either side of him. [The Sultan] shook my hand and I greeted him. He sat me down on his left and asked me about Sultan Muhammad and my travels. I answered [his questions], and he went back to talking about the Fiqh of the Shafi'i madhhab. This continued until the afternoon prayer on 29. After he had prayed ,he went into a room nearby, took off his faqih robes, in which he goes on foot to the mosque for Friday prayers, and put on the robes of the ruler - kaftans of silk and cotton.

An account of [the Sultan's] departure to the palace and the order in which he was greeted

Elephants and horses were waiting at the gate outside the mosque. According to local custom, if the sultan rides an elephant, then his retinue rides horses. But if he rides on a horse ,then [the others] ride on elephants. The learned men were on the right of [the Sultan]. That day he rode an elephant, and we rode horses, and went with him to Michoir. We dismounted where we were supposed to, and the Sultan rode inside. Vezirs, emirs, scribes, local nobles, and military leaders were already waiting in rows in Michoir. In the first row were the vezirs and scribes, and there were four vezirs. They greeted [the Sultan] and returned to their seats. Following them, a number of emirs greeted him and took their seats. Then the other groups did the same - a number of sharifs and faqihs, then a number of fellow diners, scholars and poets, then a number of military leaders, and finally a number of servants and slaves. The Sultan stood on his elephant in front of the canopied seat, and over his head was a jeweled umbrella.31 On each side of [the Sultan] were fifty decorated elephants, as well as a hundred Nubian horses. Before [the Sultan] were the stewards. Then the male musicians came and began to sing in front of him. And they brought horses covered with silk, with golden foot rings and embroidered silk halters, and they pranced before [the Sultan]. I was surprised at this, because I had seen something like it in the ruler of India. At sunset, the Sultan entered the palace, and the others went home.

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A story about the rebellion that [the Sultan's] nephew raised and what caused it

[The Sultan] had a nephew (a brother's son) married to his daughter, 32 to whom he entrusted the administration of one of the provinces. The young man fell in love with the daughter of an emir and wanted to marry her. According to local custom, if someone, whether an emir, merchant, or someone else, has a daughter of marriageable age, then he must obey the Sultan's will in her case. The Sultan sends one of the women to look at her, and if he likes the description ,he will marry her. Otherwise, he allows her relatives to marry her to whomever they want.33 People here tend to give their daughters as wives to the sultan, in order to achieve a high position and honor. When the father of a girl whom the Sultan's nephew loved turned to him, he sent to see her and took her as his wife. The young man's love for her grew stronger, but he did not find a way to [see her]. Then the Sultan set out on a campaign, and it was a month's journey to the land of the infidels. Then his nephew rebelled against him, entered Sumutra, because then it was not surrounded by a wall, and seized power. Some people swore allegiance to him, while others refused. His uncle found out about it and turned back. Then the nephew took as much property and treasure as he could, took the girl he loved, and fled to the land of the infidels in Mul Jawah.34 That's why his uncle built a wall around Sumutra.

I stayed with [the Sultan] in Sumutra for fifteen days, and then asked his permission to set sail, because it was the season. After all, you can't go to China at any time 35. [The Sultan] provided us with a junk 36, provided us with provisions, and was kind and merciful, may Allah reward him. He sent his men with us, who brought us food on the junk.

We sailed along the coast of his country for twenty-one nights, and then arrived at Mul Jawu, the land of the infidels, which is a two - month journey. There are spices and incense, and the excellent aloes of al-kakuli and al-kumari, and Kakula 37 and Kumara 38 are among the provinces [of this country]. In the lands of Sultan al-Zahir on Jawya, there is only frankincense and camphor, as well as some cloves and Indian aloe. And only Mul Jawy has most of it. Now let's talk about those [spices] that we saw with our own eyes and knew for ourselves.

The story of Frankincense

The incense tree is small - as tall as a man or even smaller. Its branches are like those of an artichoke, and its leaves are small and tender. Sometimes they fall off, and not a single leaf remains on the tree. Frankincense is the resin that forms in the branches of [this tree]. There is more incense in the Muslim lands than in the infidel lands.

The story of Camphor

The camphor tree is a reed, 39 like the one that grows in our land, only its stems are longer and thicker. Camphor is found inside these stems. If you break the reed, you can find camphor inside the same shape as the stem. The amazing secret of [camphor] is that it is formed in this reed only when an animal is killed at its roots. Otherwise, no camphor occurs. The coldest aromatic substance, a measure of which weighing one dirham is deadly, as it stops breathing, is called al-hardala 40. At the [roots] of the reed [producing this kind of camphor], a person is killed or, instead of it, an elephant's calf.

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A story about Indian aloe

Indian aloe is a tree that resembles an oak, only its bark is thin. Its leaves are like the leaves of an oak, but it has no fruit. The [scarlet] tree does not reach a large size. Its roots are long, stretch far, and they contain an aromatic substance. As for the branches and leaves of this tree, they are odorless. In Muslim lands, all [aloe] trees are owned. But in the land of the infidels, most of it belongs to no one. The property has something that [grows] in Kakula, and this is the best aloe. Al-kumari is also an excellent type of aloe, which is sold to the people of Jaua in exchange for clothing. There is a variety of al-kumari, on which prints remain, as on wax. As for [aloe] al - ' atas, its roots are cut off, buried in the ground for months, and they retain their properties 41. This is the most delicious of the varieties of [aloe].

The story of the carnation

Clove trees are old and large. There are more of them in the lands of the infidels than in the lands of the Muslims. Because there are so many of them, they don't belong to anyone. They bring into our land branches and what we call carnation flowers, and this is what falls from its flowers. They resemble orange blossoms. The fruit of a clove is a nutmeg, known to us as a fragrant nut 42, and the flowers that appear on it are a nutmeg flower 43. I saw all this with my own eyes.

We arrived at the port of Kakula and found many junks ready for pirate raids, as well as [to oppose] those ships that do not comply with their [requirements], because they [charge] a fee from each ship. 44 We got off the junk [and entered] Kakula , a beautiful city surrounded by a wall of hewn stone so wide that three elephants could walk on it. The first thing I saw [outside the city walls] were elephants loaded with Indian aloe, which is burned in homes and valued no more than we have firewood. This is if they trade among themselves, but to the merchants they sell one cargo [of aloes] in exchange for clothing of their cotton cloth, which is valued by them above silk. There are a lot of elephants here, they are ridden and carried [cargo]. Everyone ties up their elephants at the door. Each shopkeeper ties up an elephant at [his shop], rides it home and carries [loads]. All Chinese and residents of Cathay do the same 45.

The story of the Sultan of Mul Jawy

[This sultan] is a pagan. I saw him sitting in front of the palace under a canopy on the [bare] ground, and there was no carpet under him. Local nobles were with him, and the troops were presented to him on foot. Only the Sultan has horses there, but the others ride and fight only on elephants. When the Sultan heard about me, he called me to him. I went up and said, "Peace be upon him who follows the right path," 46 but [those present] understood only the word "peace "(as-salam). [The Sultan] greeted me and ordered a cloak to be spread out for me to sit on. Then I asked the interpreter, " How can I sit on my cloak when the Sultan is sitting on the ground?" And he answered: "It is his custom to sit humbly on the ground. You are a guest, and you have come from the great Sultan 47, which means that you should be honored." I sat down, and [the Sultan] asked me briefly about the Sultan [Muhammad]. Then he said to me, " Be our guest for three days, and then you will continue on your way."

A story about an amazing event I saw at the court of [the Sultan]

I saw a man at the court of this sultan who had a bookbinder's knife in his hand. He put [this knife] to his neck and spoke for a long time in a language that I didn't understand. Then he grabbed the knife with both hands and cut it

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my throat. The knife was so sharp and [the man's] grip was so strong that his head fell to the ground. I marveled at what he had done, and the sultan asked me: "Does anyone do this for you?" I told him I'd never seen anything like it. Then he laughed and said: "These are our slaves, they kill themselves out of love for us." Then he ordered them to take [the body] away and burn it. The governors, nobles, military leaders, and subjects withdrew to be burned. [The Sultan] gave large salaries to [the deceased's] children, his wife and brothers, and they were held in high esteem because of what he had done. One of those present at the court then told me that in his speech [the man] he professed his love for the Sultan and that he had killed himself as a sign of that love. In the same way, his father killed himself out of love for his father, and his grandfather killed himself out of love for the latter's grandfather. Then I left the court, and [the Sultan] sent me food for three days.

II

Two months later, we arrived at Jawu and stopped at Sumutra. Its Sultan al-Malik al-Zahir had just returned from a campaign and brought many prisoners. He sent me two girls and two boys and settled me in as usual. I attended the wedding of [the Sultan's] son and his niece (his brother's daughter).

The story of the wedding of al-Malik's son al-Zahir

I was present at the celebration and saw how a large platform was set up in the center of michoir and covered with silk fabrics. The bride came out of the palace on foot, her face uncovered. About forty noble ladies from the families of the Sultan, his emirs and vezirs accompanied her and carried a train behind her. All of them had their faces uncovered, so that they could be seen by everyone present-both nobles and commoners. This happens only on the occasion of a wedding and is usually not accepted by them. The bride went up to the dais, and the musicians, men and women, sang and played in front of her. Then the groom appeared on a decorated elephant with a seat on its back and an umbrella - like canopy over it. The bridegroom had a crown on his head. On either side of him rode about a hundred sons of rulers and emirs, dressed in white and mounted on decorated horses. They wore bejeweled caps on their heads. They were the groom's age, and they were all beardless. With the arrival of [the groom], people began to throw dinars and dirhams. The Sultan sat on a raised platform, where he watched the proceedings. His son dismounted and kissed his foot, then went up to the dais to join the bride. She stood up and kissed his hand. He sat down next to her while the noblewomen fanned her with [fans]. Then they brought areca palm nuts and betel nuts. The bridegroom took some with his hand and put it in his mouth, and then she took it with both hands and put it in his mouth. Then the bridegroom took a betel leaf with his lips and put it in [the bride's] mouth, and all this [happened] in front of the people, and she did as he did.48 Then [the bride] was covered with a veil, and the platform with [the newlyweds] was lifted up and carried into the palace. The people ate and dispersed. The next day they gathered, and the father proclaimed [his son] as his successor. The people swore allegiance to him, and he lavished them with clothing and gold.

I stayed on this island for two months, and then sailed on one of the junks. The Sultan gave me a lot of aloe, camphor, cloves, and sandalwood, and also provided me with provisions.

comments

1 After departure from the country of Barakhnakar.

2 Jaua, Sumatra Island. This place name appears in Arabic sources since the 13th century (earlier texts include such geographical names as Jaba and Zabaj). The toponym Jaua was applied to Java, Sumatra and the western part of the Malay Archipelago in general. Jazirat al-Jawaah in the story of Ibn Battu-

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You're obviously Sumatra. However, the traveler also uses the ethnonym al-jawy when referring to people from island Southeast Asia in general [Laffan, 2009, p. 37].

3 Frankincense is extracted from Boswellia trees native to East Africa and Southern Arabia. Ibn Battuta refers to the fragrant resin of the Styrax benzoin tree, common in Southeast Asia [Description..., 1847, p. 246]. Sumatran benzoin resin was known to the Arabs as "Javanese frankincense" (Shsfsr, 1981, p. 228).

4 The aloe of medieval Arab authors (Arab, al-'ud) is an aloic tree (also agar, kalambak, agalloch, "eagle tree", etc.), represented by several species of the genus Aquilaria. The wood of the aloe tree was used in perfumery and the production of incense.

Ash-shaki 5 and al-barki are trees of the genus Artocarpus, close relatives of the breadfruit tree, producing large edible fruits. They are probably jackfruit (Artocarpus hctcrophyllus) and chempedac (Artocarpus champeden) [The Travels..., 1829, p. 104-105]. A detailed account of the fruits of ash-shaky and al-barqy can be found in the part of Ibn Battuta's" Journey " devoted to India [Voyages..., vol. III, 1855, p. 126-127].

6 Jamun (also Jambul, jambolan) is a tropical tree (Syzygium cumini) common in India and Southeast Asia, producing small fruits of dark purple color.

7 Camphor is extracted from camphor laurel (Cinnamomum camphora), a large evergreen tree, rather than from reeds. Perhaps Ibn Battuta's mistake was caused by the fact that in the Middle Ages camphor intended for export was packed in bamboo cut along the joints (Shsfsr, 1981, p.225). Alternatively, the traveler confuses information about camphor and bamboo nodules-tabashirs (Yule, 1916, p. 99). This thick white siliceous substance, formed in the internodes of one of the bamboo species (Bambusa arundinacca), has been used for medicinal purposes since ancient times.

8 The port master in the medieval Malay states held the Persian title of shahbandar and was one of the highest officials. Shahbandar inspected incoming and departing ships, was the head of the port, the head of customs and the defender of foreigners [Winstedt, 1950, p. 74].

9 The construction of the sentence is such that the name as-sarha can refer both to the port and to the buildings located in it. G. A. R. Gibb suggests that the houses mentioned here are some kind of state institutions [Ibn Battuta, 1929, p. 367]. Sarkha as a toponym, as far as we know, is not mentioned in other sources.

10 Cf. the report of one of Admiral Zheng He's companions, the Chinese Muslim Ma Huan, about Samudra: "When a ship sails from Malacca to the west and goes with a fair east wind for five days and nights, it first arrives at a village on the sea coast called Ta-lu-man; after landing there and passing through about ten li (3 miles) to the southeast, you can reach the specified place" (quoted from: [Grocncvcldt, 1876, p. 85]). Perhaps the port where Ibn Battuta landed is Jambu Air, a settlement on the northeastern coast of Sumatra (Yule, 1916, p. 96). In the Ssjarah Mslayu, there are references to how those who went to Samudra first arrived in Jamba Air [Revunenkova, 2008, p. 185, 200].

11 Qadi-Muslim judge.

12 Ssyyid is the title of a person who traces his lineage back to the Prophet Muhammad. Most often, this was the name given to the descendants of the Prophet's grandson, Husayn, while the descendants of his brother Hasan were called tarifs. Both Sayyids and sharifs could include people who were not related to the house of Muhammad.

13 Faqihs - legal experts, experts in Muslim law (fiqh). The Samudra rulers brought Muslim theologians and jurists from the Middle East to court and encouraged theological disputes. The names of the faqihs mentioned by Ibn Battuta, as well as the representative of the port master, indicate their Persian origin (although shirazi could have been a general term meaning merchant, regardless of their origin [Laffan, 2009, p. 60]). Amir Sayyid al-Shirazi was the chief qadi under Sultan Malik Azzahir, and Taj al-Din al-Isfahan was the chief mufti. Graves of these Passaic Ulsms have been found in northern Sumatra (Denisova, 2002, p. 259).

14 Sumutra-Samudra Passai Sultanate, a trading city-state that existed on the northern coast of Sumatra in the XIII-XV centuries. Chroniclers attribute the official adoption of Islam by Samudra to the famous ruler Merah Sil, known as Malik as-Salih (d. 1297), although there are references to his Muslim predecessors [Denisova, 2002, pp. 256-257]. The son of Malik al-Salih was the Sultan Malik al-Zahir mentioned by Ibn Battuta.

15 Al-Malik al-Zahir - this name is primarily known as Muhammad Malik al-Zahir (d. 1326), but the time of the traveler's visit falls on the reign of his son Sultan Ahmad (1326-1360). In 1326, Ibn Battuta was just beginning his wanderings and could not have visited Sumatra earlier, except that the entire chronology of his travels is not correct. Most likely, the traveler met with Sultan Ahmad (Hill, 1963, p. 15). The name Malik al-Zahir was the dynastic name of several rulers of the sultanate beginning with Sultan Muhammad [ibid., p. 14] and can indicate both father and son. Some of the traveler's reports relate to the reign of Muhammad Malik al-Zahir [Denisova, 2002, p. 259], but it is possible that Ibn Battuta transmits this information from someone else's words, and they go back to an earlier time.

16 Shafi'i Madhhab - a theological and legal school within the Sunni direction of Islam, founded by Muhammad al-Shafi'i (767-820). From the 11th to the 12th centuries, Shafi'i was the dominant madhhab in Egypt, and today it is widespread in a number of Muslim countries in the Middle East, East Africa, and Southeast Asia. Most of the Muslims of Indonesia and Malaysia today adhere to the Shafi'i sense.

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17 The Jizya poll tax levied in Islamic States on non-Muslim populations, mainly people of the Book, i.e. Jews and Christians.

18 Medieval etiquette in many countries prescribed dismounting as a sign of respect for a person of higher status, and only the ruler usually had the right to enter the courtyard of a castle or palace on horseback [Ibragimov, 1988, p. 1161.

Michoir 19 is a large hall with a ruler's throne, a reception area that may not have a roof.

20 The Sultan's deputy - presumably the Prime Minister or first wazir. In all Malay principalities, except for the Malacca Sultanate, the viceroy of the ruler bore the title of mangkubumi [Rsvunsnkova, 2008, p. 148]. Perhaps " support of the state "(Arabic, ' umdat al-mulk) is a loose translation of this Malay title.

21 Girdle (Arabic, al-futa) - men's skirt, loincloth. Most likely, Ibn Battuta is talking about the Malay cain - a rectangular piece of cloth that was wrapped around the hips.

22 The ceremony of bestowing clothing was a common form of expressing the ruler's favor both in the Malay Archipelago and in the Middle East. The payment of honorary robes was accepted at the court of the Abbasid caliphs (As-Sabi, 1983, pp. 67-69). In the Malay states, this rite accompanied the ceremonies of conferring titles and receiving ambassadors, and the set and number of clothes presented depended on the rank of the recipient [Rsvunsnkova, 2008, p. 117]. Clothing donation in medieval Malacca is described in detail in Ssjarah Mslayu [ibid., p. 216], and this custom is also mentioned in Hikayat raja-raja Passai [Skazaniya..., 1982, p.142].

23 Barley drink (Arab, al-fukka) beer based on barley (in contrast to mazar, wheat niva) [Description..., 1847, p. 131]. However, Mahdi Husayn believes that Ibn Battuta referred to a non-alcoholic barley drink that was consumed after meals for better assimilation of food [The Rehla..., 1953, p. 66].

24 Betel (Arab, at-tanabup) A chewable mixture common in South and Southeast Asia, consisting of betel vine leaves (Piper bctlc), finely chopped arsk palm nuts (Agssa catechu) and a small amount of lime. Bstslevaya mixture is used as a tonic and when chewed, it turns the oral cavity and saliva red-brown. In Malay culture, betel chewing has performed and continues to perform numerous etiquette and ritual functions. Betel was an important attribute of various holidays and official ceremonies. Its use completed ceremonial receptions and was often the final act after a regular meal. It was considered a gross violation of etiquette not to offer betel to a guest [Rsvunsnkova, 2008, p. 165].

In the Middle Ages, the use of betel was widespread in the Indian Ocean basin as far south as Arabia and East Africa. The use of this mixture by residents of not only Yemen, but also Mecca and Hijaz is reported by al-Mas'udi [Macoudi, 1863, p.84]. Ibn Battuta himself repeatedly mentions bethel in his "Journey" - not only in the story of Sumatra, but also in chapters on India, the Maldives, East Africa and South Arabia. The traveler's reports not only reflect the breadth of the betel chewing practice in the 14th century, but also indicate the similarity of its label functions in different parts of the Indooxan water area. In the stories of Ibn Battuta, betel is often presented on various occasions - on the occasion of a celebration, as a sign of hospitality, or simply after a meal. A detailed account of betel can be found in the Arabian chapters of Voyages..., vol. II, 1854, p. 204-206].

Al-mukhmalat 25 from al-mukhmal (Arabic. "velvet").

26 Pillows - Arab. al-mahadd; al-bawalisht has the same meaning.

27 Refers to the Indian Sultan Muhammad ibn Tughlaq (1325-1351).

28 Maksura is a special place in the mosque for the ruler to pray.

29 The afternoon (or afternoon) prayer is the third of the five daily prayers prescribed by Islam, performed before sunset.

30 Sharifs-see comment # 12.

31 The umbrella played an important role in Malay court etiquette and was a status symbol. Umbrellas varied in shape, color, and material, and were usually richly decorated. According to Ibn Battuta himself, in India and China, the umbrella was an integral attribute of the ruler [The Rehla..., 1953, p. 49].

32 In Islam, patrilatural orthocuse marriage (marriage to the daughter of a paternal uncle) is the most preferred. However, in the Malay archipelago, closely related marriages between members of the ruling house existed even before the adoption of Islam. In the families of the Minangkabau rulers, it was a common practice to marry first cousins, the children of two brothers (Winstedt, 1950, p. 87).

33 A similar message, but only about Champs, is given by Marco Polo: "In this kingdom, you know, no girl dares to marry before the king sees her; if the king likes her, he will take her as his wife, and if not, he will give money to marry her." (pit. po: [Marco Polo Book, 1956, p. 174]).

34 Mul Jawah is a place name that, apart from Ibn Battuta, is found only in one author, a Persian historian of the 14th century. Wassafa [Relations..., 1914, p. 359]. Early researchers of Voyages identified Ce with Java [The Travels..., 1829, p. 201; Description..., 1847, p. 244; Voyages..., 1858, p. 239], but then G. Yule made arguments in favor of the fact that Mul Jaua is the Malacca Peninsula [Yule, 1916, p. 155 157]. Ibn Battuta refers to the regions of this country as Kakula and Kumara, presumably located on the mainland, but this is more about their vassalage from Mul Jawah than about the unity of their territory. In The Journey, the message of arrival at Mul Jawu is followed by a description of Kakula, followed by a short story

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about the Sultan of Mul Jawy. However, J. R. Tibbsts points out that Ibn Battuta never refers to Kakula as the capital of Mul Jawah, nor does he mention the Sultan of Mul Jawah in the passage dedicated to Kakuls (Tibbctts, 1979, p.132). Thus, there is no need to combine the stories of these two localities into one. According to the researcher, the story of Kakul is not in place, or, more likely, part of the original text of Ibn Battuta was lost [ibid.]. Mul Jawu J. R. Tibbsts, returning to the opinion of earlier researchers, identifies with Java [ibid., p.151]. However, the latter assumption does not agree well with Ibn Battuta's account. Perhaps we are talking about East Sumatra and the trading port of Malay-Jambi, which has not yet lost its significance and recognized the suzerainty of the Javanese Majapahit Empire [Laffan, 2009, p. 37]. The southern part of the island was known to Chinese sources as Malaya or Mo-lo-yu (Jack-Hinton, 1964, p. 60). As early as the thirteenth century, the capital of the Sumatran kingdom, Srivijaya, was moved to Malaya from Palembang (ibid., p.58). Srivijaya controlled the ports of the Malacca Peninsula for several centuries, which explains Ibn Battuta's account of Kakula's dependence on Mul Jawah. By the 14th century, Srivijaya was in decline, but it may have retained nominal power over vassal states.

35 The point is that shipping in the Indian Ocean was dependent on the monsoon. Apparently, Ibn Battuta was waiting for the start of the southwest monsoon, which blew in the Indian Ocean and South China Sea from April to October.

36 Junk-a sailing vessel common in East and Southeast Asia.

37 Kakula (or Kakulla - coincides with the Arabic name for cardamom; also transliterated as Kakulah, Kakullah) - a commercial port, the question of the location of which has not yet been resolved. Researchers placed Kakula in Java [Description..., 1847, p. 245], Sumatra [Livre des merveilles..., 1883-1886, p. 237-241], as well as in the region of Xlantan or Ligor [Gcrini, 1909, p.444]. It is most likely located on the coast of Tsnasssrim [Tibbctts, 1979, p. 97-98; Wheatlcy, 1961, p. 228], but this hypothesis contradicts the route of Ibn Battuta, because he visited Kakula after Samudra. According to J. R. Tibbets, the stories about Samudra and Kakuls are in the wrong order in the text, while in fact the traveler visited Kakul before stopping in Sumatra (Tibbctts, 1979, p. 97-98). However, the available information about Kakuls is too scanty to be able to determine its location, and does not exclude its location to the south of Samudra.

The location of Kakula on the Tsnasssrim coast is largely related to its position relative to the other port of Kalaha. Abu Dulaf and a Chinese source agree that Kakula was located on the coast northwest of Kalah [Relations..., 1914, p. 222-223; Chau Ju-Kua, 1911, p. 11]. The location of Kalah is also unclear - it was placed in the area of Ksdaha, on the isthmus of Kra and on the coast of Tsnasssrim in the area of Msrgui (Wheatlcy, 1961, p. 224). However, S. K. Fatimi gives a number of arguments in favor of the fact that Kalah is a Klang in the state of Sslangor (Fatimi, 1960). Since most researchers place Kalah in the northern part of the peninsula or even on the Burmese coast, the estimated location of Kakula is also shifted to the north. But if S. K. Fatimi's hypothesis is correct and Kalah was located in the Klang area, then Kakulu may be much further south. In this case, it might have been on the path of Ibn Battuta, who was traveling from Samudra through the Strait of Malacca.

38 Kumara ( or Kamara) - Cambodia (medieval Khmer state) [Tibbctts, 1979, p. 156].

39 See comment # 7.

411 Young shoots of one of the bamboo species (see comment # 7) are poisonous because they contain cyanide. The very name al-hardaya is of unknown origin. It probably dates back to the Malay artal-operment (arsenic sulfide) [Yule, 1916, p. 99]. It is a toxic gold-colored mineral, also known as yellow arsenic.

41 Fragrant resin is formed in the trunk and roots of the aloe tree (see comment No. 4) as a result of a protective reaction to fungal damage. Gradually, it permeates the wood, making it dark and hard and exuding a thick, spicy aroma when ignited. This diseased wood, which differs from the lighter and lighter wood around it, was used to make incense. According to Ibn Sina, redwood trees were cut down and kept buried in the ground, waiting for the healthy wood to rot and only its hard, resin-soaked part remains (Ibn Sina, 1982, p. 490).

42 Nutmeg (jauz bauua) is a name of Persian origin; aromatic nut (jauzat at-tyb) is an Arabic synonym (Donkin, 2003, p. 87).

43 Nutmeg is the seed of nutmeg (Myristica fragrans), and nutmeg blossom (macis) is the spice derived from the aryllus surrounding these seeds. Ibn Battuta mixes stories about nutmeg and clove tree (Syzygium aromaticum). According to G. Yule, the traveler could have learned this information in Delhi, where in the XIX century there was a legend that cinnamon, cloves and nutmeg are the bark, flowers and fruits of the same tree [Yule, 1916, p.102].

44 Cf. communication of a Chinese author of the XIII century. Zhao Zhugua on the methods by which the Sumatran kingdom of Srivijaya maintained its dominance on the trade routes: "If passing ships do not enter [the port], then immediately ships come out and start a battle in order to destroy them without fail" (translated by M. Yu. Ulyanov [Zhao Zhugua, 1996, p. 145; cf. Tyurin, 1980, p. 34]). Ibn Battuta himself tells of a similar practice in an Indian port: "There [in Fakanaur] it is customary that every ship passing by the city should anchor, and the head of the city should be presented with a gift. This is called a trade duty. Whoever does not observe this custom is persecuted by the inhabitants of the city in their ships and ships.

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forcibly delivered to the port. Then they impose a double duty on it and do not allow it to sail further for as long as they please" (cit. according to: [Khsnig, 1962, p. 203]).

45 Katai (Arabic: al-Khata) the northern part of modern China, southern China was called as-Sin by the Arabs. This division is also typical for European medieval travelers, depending on whether they reached China by land or by sea. Ibn Battuta's account of the use of elephants in northern China has always caused researchers to doubt that he traveled further than the southern coast of the country (Yule, 1916, p. 48).

46 " Peace to him who follows the right path!" (Arabic. Al-sapam ' ala may ittaba'a l-huda) is a greeting used when addressing non-Muslims, while the formula As-salam alaikum was used only in relation to co-religionists (Ibn Battuta, 1929, p. 367).

47 Apparently, this refers to the Indian Sultan Muhammad ibn Tughlaq (1325-1351).

48 The most important moment of the Malay wedding ceremony, which has preserved many elements of Hindu ritual, is when the bride and groom sit on a raised platform and feed each other rice. Betel also plays an important role in wedding ceremonies. During matchmaking, the groom's side presents betel to the bride's representatives, and the ts accept it as a sign of agreement. The very word" matchmaking " in Malay comes from the name of the Arsk palm nut (Rsvunsnkova, 2008, p. 166). The joint consumption of betel by the bride and groom, described by Ibn Battuta, probably performs the same functions as the mutual feeding of rice.

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