The article develops the ideas of the report "From the history of Nagori typesetting fonts", read by the author at the "Roerich Readings" at the Institute of Oriental Studies of the Russian Academy of Sciences (2005) and is devoted to the French Devanagari fonts in the Russian Empire and their French-German prehistory. These fonts were created with the participation of Prof. Wilhelm Schlegel (1767-1845) and are known from publications of the XIX - early XX centuries. Photos of punches are published for the first time.

Keywords: devanagari typography, Sanskrit printing, Indian writing, history of indology, French Schlegel font, German Ungern font

"Sanskrit printing serves mainly scientific purposes, and has long been taken for granted, but only a hundred years ago everything was different. Although a full-fledged set in Devanagari is somewhat closer to us in time than a typographic set of Hebrew (starting from 1495 in Germany) or Arabic (1722, under Peter I for "Alcoran in Arabic") fonts, this area has preserved a lot of interesting things, because it is associated with the names of the most prominent philologists of the past"- this is how the Bonn indologist Willibald Kirfel (1885-1964) began his article a year after the outbreak of the First World War, not suspecting that in the near future the technical arsenal of printing houses capable of printing indological works will be stolen, and the tools they used will become the pride of antique shops 2 and will never be used again, and remained the dream of bibliophiles. In contrast, for example, to the Egyptian and Chinese characters of gravure printing, used in gift editions, produced to this day in Paris.

The history of Sanskrit printing has had its ups and downs. After its rapid prosperity at the beginning of the 19th century, by the end of the 20th century, there was absolutely nothing aesthetically pleasing left of it, and only at the beginning of the 21st century is there a revival of certain traditions of scientific printing of texts in Oriental fonts. Modern indological, in particular educational, publications published over the past half century (alas, not only in India, but also in Europe) do not stand up to criticism even with a very low bar of typographic requirements.

1 I would like to express my gratitude to the Director of The Type Museum in London (Tim Martin) for prompting me to refer to the epochal reference book of the bibliographer G. A. Glaister [Glaister, 1979]. Compared to this publication, all the others, except for [Kirfel, 1915] (for example, [Singh, 2011]), are secondary for studying the "French" Devanagari font.

2 After the sale in 1919 of the matrices "Fremde Schriften" (German: "alien writing" - the term of the Drugulin publishing house) and their transfer from the dictionary of V. Drugulin (Schriftgieẞerei W. Drugulin) to D. Stempel AG (6, 8, 10, 12, 16, 18, 20 skittles "German" and " French They last appear in the 1927 census when transported from Leipzig to Frankfurt, with a total of nine varieties. Most of the matrices have miraculously survived to this day in the Hessisches Landesmuseum in Darmstadt and need further cataloging, which was initiated by the printer Karl Zimmermann.

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Figure 1. Sample of the "ordinary" Schlegel font, part I

The contrast with modern publications becomes especially noticeable if we consider the achievements of German printing houses in Bonn, Berlin, Vienna, Leipzig, and Götingen as role models, while the French ones in Paris, Nancy, and Limoges, and the Dutch ones in Leiden (Gasuns, 2006, p.54). This is not a complete list of European cities that used the Schlegel typeface (we call it "French") or the Unger brothers 3 ("German", which is called old in the history books of typography). To these should fairly be added St. Petersburg ("state Asian printing house", 1797), Kazan and Kharkov, the justification of which will be made below.

The second branch of the Imperial Academy of Sciences had a larger collection of Oriental typefaces than even the East India Company (which was directly interested in the versatile education of clerks and merchants). The richness of the matrices of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences is comparable only to the state printing houses of Paris (l'Imprimerie Royale) and Vienna (K. K. Hof-und Staatsdruckerei)4. The first traces of the Schlegel typeface in Russia date back to 1843 [Böhtlingk, 1845]5. The last samples of the Sanskrit script in Leningrad date back to 1928 [Samples of Oriental..., 1928], a fully typed book-no later than 1918. 6

3 It is probably fairer to consider Ferdinand Tayehardt (1820-1906) as a typeface cutter, who says in his autobiography that he helped T. Grimm and the Gebr printing house. Unger when printing books on Sanskrit published in London, and mentions Goldstucker's unfinished Sanskrit-English dictionary [Theinhardt, 1899, pp. 16-17].

4 Speaking of a unique publication [Font Samples..., 1870], D. S. Likhachev claims that this is "an outstanding example of printing art, which also testifies to the huge technical and technological capabilities of Academic printing houses for reproducing the most complex types of scientific literature that were not comparable with other printing houses of those years" [Vasiliev, 2006]. To verify the validity of this statement, at least as far as Eastern typefaces are concerned, we need to carefully compare the translations given in it, for example, "Our Father", with translations in [Faulmann, 1880] and in English (in particular [Specimen, 1818]) editions - there are about a dozen books of this kind of the genre.

5 Three years earlier, Betling was still forced to publish in Bonn (Boehtlingk, 1842).

6 The most recent use of the Schlegel typeface set (not lithography) in our country is in [Darmakirti, 1918]. The chronological line is doubtful and it may be necessary to move it as much as 40 years later, since the Ramayana (trans., comment. A. P. Barannikov, M.-L., 1948), and in particular - "The Initial Course of Sanskrit" by V. A. Kochergina (L.: USSR Academy of Sciences, 1956) have large unique inserts in the "ordinary" font.

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Figure 2. Modern replica of the Schlegel font, 2005.

However, since 1918, the situation with Oriental fonts in Russia has become less obvious. This happened because in 1923 the printing house could not or did not want to once again type a sufficiently short translated manual on Sanskrit, prepared this time under the editorship of F. I. Sherbatsky. But Fyodor Ippolitovich, like no one else, owned the subject, working closely with the Bibliotheca Buddhica. This is all the more unfortunate, since both dictionaries are Sanskrit by Otto Betlingk

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(1815-1904) - originally from St. Petersburg [Boehtlingk, 1842; Böhtlingk, 1845]. Large and Small St. Petersburg seven-volume dictionaries each occupy a bookshelf. These are the largest " treasures of language (thesaurus)", according to K. A. Kossovich, in India and abroad.

The above-mentioned Leningrad edition (Obrazniki Vostochnykh..., 1928), presumably the last one, presents three varieties of Sanskrit script: Schlegel's petit (keg6), Schlegel's corpus (keg8), and Nirnayasagar's bold (keg12).7 There are no "German" pins in it. The font, which is called "Nirnayasagar" according to the place of its origin from the legendary printing house of Bombay 8, is quite different from the Devanagari font of the Unger brothers, which was popular in London and Leipzig at that time. In addition to this publication, especially in the European press, it is not found anywhere else, except for this publication. So " Samples..."1928 asks more questions than it helps to confirm the old indirect guesses. But the" Nirnayasagar " font outside Bombay is not the only mystery of St. Petersburg publications.

It is also interesting to note that the capital font used, for example, on the first page of volume XI of the Bibliotheca Buddhica [NyāyabindutīkāppaṇĪ..., 1909] is for some reason not represented in the Samples of Oriental Fonts (1928), although it was first used as an accidental font half a century earlier in French publications. Nevertheless, no less than four varieties of printed Devanagari fonts were used by the First Academic Printing House of St. Petersburg in a period of less than a hundred years.

As you know, the Printing house of the Academy of Sciences was established in 1727 in the building where the Zoological Museum is now located. From the very beginning, it printed Oriental texts. In 1729, the printing house was divided into two departments: Russian and German, and oriental fonts were introduced (cit. by: [Ehrlich, 2000]). In the same year, here was published "Khineyskaya grammar" by G.-Z. Bayer (d. 1738), for which Chinese characters were engraved for the first time in Russia 9.

An article containing brief information about New Indian languages and samples of the Sanskrit alphabet was published in the" Commentaries " of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences [Commentarii..., 1729(1735), pp. 289-301]. "In this work, for the first time in Russia, samples of the Sanskrit alphabet (Devangari) printed from wooden cliches made from drawings by G. Bayer were presented, and brief information about Dravidian (Tamul, Telugu) and some New Indian (Marathi, Gujerati, etc.) languages was given" [ibid.].

A generation later, in 1928, 35 ancient and Oriental fonts were listed in the "Font Samples". It should not be forgotten that since 1903 the head of the printing house was the Buddhist academician S. F. Oldenburg (1863-1934).

And 28 years later, V. A. Kochergina's "Initial Course of Sanskrit" was published in Leningrad (Kochergina, 1956). Initially, I assumed that the Schlegel font inserts made in it were of lithographic origin, but there are too many of them and they contain a unique educational dictionary. At the same time, the other part of the text is typed by hand, as well as individual amendments. Let me remind you that during the Great Patriotic War, the Leningrad Printing House of the Academy of Sciences was mothballed, after which it was no longer possible to completely collect the scattered typeface economy. And then how was the dictionary typed in the textbook? For him, after all, you can't "cut" vocables separately (because in the text they are found in a single form, i.e. graphically, although slightly, but still differ), therefore, the lithography disappeared. It is not at all excluded that

7 См. https://www.flickr.com/photos/gasyoun/sets/72157633063261169/.

8 A modern replica of which is now extremely popular in the world Nirnayasagar font Sanskrit2003.ttf (unicode), to which in 2016 in India it is planned to publish a bold font.

9 It would be interesting to compare Russian Chinese characters with those used in France. After all, the Russian ones are supposedly older.

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3. F. Bopp's publication page

Back in 1956, wooden boxes of ancient Devanagari letters were kept safe and sound at V. O., 9 l., 12 (1st printing house of the Publishing House of the USSR Academy of Sciences).

At a personal meeting, V. A. Kochergina told me that the book was printed in Leningrad, because in Moscow at that time there was no technical possibility of typing in Sanskrit. I note that in Leningrad, but after another 22 years, the Sanskrit-Russian Dictionary (1978) was printed with a completely different headset [Morgenroth, 1989]10 (presumably developed in 1965 by the Swiss Adrian Frutiger, but requires additional verification). The inconsistency is that Monotype released it only in 1965-1973 (and we are talking about only 180 graphemes), and the Prague "Sanskrit Anthology" by Fris [Fris, 1954 ]is printed using a modern font (but many of the necessary ligatures are in place, Vedic accents are also present).

By 1982, the dismantling of the old letterpress printing equipment was being completed in Leningrad. The history of Devanagari typefaces in Russia ends here. What exactly happened to the typefaces themselves was never found out - the Nauka publishing center, where I applied again in 2013, again did not give me an answer. But let's go back to the middle of the century before last.

Back in 1847. Kayetan Kossovich (1815-1883), "an outstanding example of self-taught Russian", as he was called, and later-an ordinary professor at St. Petersburg University (category of Sanskrit literature), had to explain in the preface to the next Sanskrit translation that the Indian words "are printed in Russian letters only because, ordered by me for the Sanskrit-Russian dictionary, Sanskrit is not a Russian word." the fonts aren't quite ready yet. " 11
The last phrase, as it turned out, has been repeated as a refrain for centuries and never loses its relevance in the mouths of various indologists, starting with G. S. Lebedev (circa 1801). This statement is also confirmed in the essays on the history of indology by Professor A. A. Vigasin: "By order of K. Kossovich, the devanagari font was specially cut out" [Vigasin, 1984, p. 280]. The first three notebooks of this dictionary, as Academician S. F. Oldenburg later wrote in an article devoted to Kossovich [Russian Biographical Dictionary of the Russian Language].

10 The inscription on the back of the title page of the Satzherstellung in der "Moskowskaja lipografija Nr. 7", Moskau is particularly mysterious. In Moscow, books in Devanagari were never printed for lack of the necessary fonts.

11 This was the case at the University Printing House, where the scientific and literary magazine Moskvityanin was published.

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4. Schlegel punches from the archive of l'Imprimerie Imperiale

Russian dictionary..., 1908, p. 301], published in "ordinary font Devan Sagar", and this publication stopped.

But the font problems didn't stop there.

Among the "pioneers of Russian orientalism" was P. Ya. Petrov (1814-1875), a professor at the Moscow Imperial University, with whom Kaetan Andreevich corresponded for many years. Prof. Petrov was perhaps even less fortunate. Printing the first independent translation of P. Ya. Petrov with grammatical analysis and notes, " Sitaharanam "(1837) "turned out to be impossible due to the lack of font in the academic printing house". But even four years later, "it was still impossible to publish Sanskrit texts in St. Petersburg due to the lack" of the same font [Istoriya otechestvennogo vostokovedeniya..., 1990, p. 336].

It is known that (and this happened no later than 1846.12) "the devanagari font had to be written out from Berlin, and the text had to be typed itself" [Vigasin, 1984, p. 278], which is confirmed by another study, which speaks of the need to "procure" the font [Shofman, 1960, p.135]. Prof. Petrov in the spring of 1847 in Kazan personally typed the complete "text of the etymological dictionary and notes" to the anthology of Indian literary monuments published shortly before [Sanskrit Anthology, 1846]. At the same time, he "tried to make the book not too thick, to present the material concisely, removing previously published texts" [Kulikova, 2003, p.122]; to speed up typing, he took the font home and worked in the evenings. Finally 200 copies. the anthologies were ready [History of Russian Oriental Studies..., 1990, p. 339].

Making prints required "too much trouble, effort, and expense" from the typesetter, as a result of his lack of experience in printing. Therefore, the second volume was not published: the text was typed in full, but the production of prints was interrupted due to the "extreme" difficulties mentioned above: "the dictionary never saw the light of day" [ibid.]. As Pyotr Yakovlevich complained in one letter, " I am especially afraid for the Hindu writings, which... they will be very difficult." It is worth noting that he was not afraid in vain, because to find a book in the world on "Ursprache" (in the words of France

12 In" Die Unadi-Affixe "O. Betlingk already in 1844 uses exactly the French font, and" Ein erster Versuch ueber den Accent im Sanskrit "(St. Petersburg: Gedruckt bei der Kaiserl. akademie der Wissensehaften) used it a year earlier.

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Figure 5. Leiden sheets of the Schlegel typeface, part I

Boppa) - in Devanagari without typos, I personally have not yet happened. The question remains open.

What kind of typeface was it? In the Russian Empire, an exclusively French typeface was always used (except for V. A. Kochergina's dictionary and more modern editions), which was presumably introduced by Robert Lenz [13] in 1835 or (possibly re -) ordered for P. Ya.Petrov in 1845. But the chronology is lame, otherwise why, thanks to the efforts of the St. Petersburg Sanskrit scholar Otto Nikolaevich Betlingk (1815-1904), in 1852, the printing house of the Academy of Sciences again acquired the "Indian fonts" of the "big set of devanagari", which were needed to print the Big St. Petersburg Dictionary [Istoriya..., 1990, p.346]. The Big Petersburg dictionary, as already mentioned, is typed in a "standard" French font. I couldn't find Petrov's anthology even in his personal collection, so 1843 is the first obviously uncontested date in our chronology and pedigree of typefaces.

The same" Beth-ling " (i.e. Schlegel) set of matrices is used in the notebooks of A. K. Kossovich's Sanskrit-Russian dictionary (1815-1883), printed in July 1854. There are no contradictions. In the same year, only in another Russian city, in November 1854, Kazan University received an order from the Minister of Public Education A. S. Norov: "The teaching of Oriental languages at Kazan University and the 1st Kazan Gymnasium should be stopped." In 1855, Kazan University ceased to exist, and "Sanskrit, Tibetan and Mongolian fonts were exported from the printing house to St. Petersburg" [PSZRI, vol. 24, N 18287].

But when the letters of the font were not yet dispersed to the four parts of the world, the famous Marxist D. N. Kudryavsky (1867-1920) wrote in his textbook of the Sanskrit language: "One of the main obstacles to mastering [Sanskrit] is the difficulty of the Sanskrit font itself. Students have repeatedly complained to me that even after the Christmas holidays, they have to learn the Sanskrit alphabet again." For the first time in a book on indology published in Russia, we see a desire to get away from devanagari not because of the complexity of typing and printing, but because of mnemonic reasons: "In view of this, I decided to publish some light text in transcription and provide it with a dictionary" [Loya, 1958, p.198].

But let's return to the history of the font, which is conventionally called "French" here 14. It begins in 1818 in Paris. The last time a sample was typed in this font was probably in Heidelberg in 1978 (Singh, 1991), after which traces of it are lost outside of France. This font, the third in a row in Europe, is from the "youth days of indology",

13 R. Lentz (1808-1836), who was elected an associate of the Academy of Sciences in 1835, " ordered the devanagari font for the printing house of the Academy of Sciences "[Istoriya otechestvennogo vostokovedeniya..., 1990, p. 329] (the author of the corresponding chapter is M. I. Vorobyova-Desyatkovskaya).

14 At the suggestion of Kirfel, it is also called German, but German in our classification corresponds to the Leipzig typeface.

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6. Leiden sheets of the Schlegel typeface, part II.

It was designed by August Wilhelm von Schlegel (1767-1845) and commissioned by the Prussian Minister of Religious Affairs.

This font was the first suitable for mass printing [Nāīk, 1982].

Schlegel took up the task with zeal, not copying or imitating the design of one or another of the fonts previously used by the British, although the resulting font corresponds in general terms to the font of Charles Wilkins, who lived in Calcutta at that time. However, it is much more elegant than the latter, sometimes no thicker than horsehair. The basis of both is writing with a quill pen.

The convenient size and sharpness of the stroke became the basis of the headset. It is characterized by a refined and elegant ratio of lines, thin as horsehair, and thick as a goose feather. Schlegel drew sketches from the calligraphic manuscripts of the Paris collection, which he then handed over to the typesetter Viberf. The latter by that time had already worked for many years in the word factory of the elders of Dido. After cutting out the punches, he gave them to Lyons, who finally cast the letters themselves (Hauschild, 1956).

The brother of a well-known linguist adhered to one rule: everything that did not satisfy him or seemed not quite well executed, he redid or redrawn from scratch, until the desired quality was achieved. The typeface set (of different sizes) was technically different from Wilkins ' typefaces "by means of which all possible characters were placed under and above the line, and this provided one strong row instead of three - in the previous headsets" (Glaister, 1979). Thus, it was achieved that neither the lower cut-off nor the superscript characters of the vowel broke on the printing press, which made it possible to type faster and better.

Finally, in 1821, the first sample of the "Specifen novae typographicæ Indicæ" was published with a table of individual letters and ligatures in 20 size, the work of the engraver Vibert (Vibert), and also in the same year a piece from the "Bopp's Nal". At the University of Bonn, which already had a set of small and large Arabic fonts, V. Schlegel opened an Indian printing house, which later published several now completely forgotten editions in Sanskrit. Schlegel's own "Song of the Lord" was the first to come out, followed by "Hitopadesa" and excerpts from the Ramayana.

At that time, the Schlegel font remained for the internal use of the city of Bonn. In mid-1822, the Prussian Ministry of Religious Affairs demanded "everything

15 Two sets of 11-and 16-pin glass typefaces were cast in 1860 at l'Imprimerie Impériale for the Société asiatique de Paris. A set of 13-size matrices was made under the direction of the father of comparative-historical linguistics F. Bonn (Franz Bopp, 1791-1867) and was supplemented by Delafond in 1840 under the direction of the French indologist E. Burnouf (Eugène Burnouf, 1801-1852). 540 punches of 16-size (the largest known set of this font in particular and typesetting fonts devanagari in general) were made by the same Delafond back in 1825 under the leadership of General Boisserolle (Jean Aurèle de Boisserolle, 1764-1829).

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7. The first book published in Schlegel script, the Bhagavad-gita (1823) (excerpt).

SANSCRIT 20 POINTS.

Deuxième partie.

Figure 8. Samples of "French" ligatures, part I

the necessary equipment for casting Indian fonts, such as punches, dies, and the caster's instruments, should be sent as soon as possible, as Mr. Bopp strongly requests, so that the Sanskrit language manual and its extracts from the Mahabharata can be printed." As is known from the historical notes of that time, the Royal Academy of Sciences, located in Berlin, in 1821 established a printing house in which this typeface was given a special place and significance.

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Troisième partie.

Figure 9. Samples of "French" ligatures, part II

Under the careful guidance of Bopp, the father of comparative linguistics, using sent punches and matrices, new "Devanagari letters of small caliber" were produced on the model of Schlegel's letters. Now, after his visit to Berlin in 1826, Schlegel demanded that the ministry acquire the necessary number of small letters, justifying this by saying "that small letters will be extremely convenient for scientific use" and "indispensable for commentaries and teaching aids" [Kirfel, 1915, pp. 277-278].

Schlegel's typefaces have earned universal acclaim, which is evident at least from the fact that Societe Asiatique has taken actions at the highest level to acquire the missing matrices. Although the French Asiatic Society owned a number of Oriental fonts (including, for example, Manchu, which was quite exotic for that time, and was provided by the Russian state adviser Baron von Canstadt), it did not have any Sanskrit font, since the device necessary for printing was never completed.

By the highest order of the Emperor of Prussia, the typefaces passed into the hands of the French on January 24, 1824. [16] In this roundabout way, and also thanks to the courtesy of the Prussian government, the Paris Asiatic Society obtained a typeface that had been developed several years earlier in their native Paris, but was later removed from there to the last letter. [17]

16 In French sources, 1833 appears instead of 1824 (fut cédé en 1833, à l'Imprimerie Royale par la Société asiatique de Paris). Moreover, the Erotic Anthology of Amaru was published in Paris in 1831 (Chézy, 1831).

17 In a personal correspondence (dated 15.03.2013), the senior engraver of the French National Publishing House, Nelly Gable, told me that the shelves of Le cabinet des Poinçons de l'imprimerie nationale (Paris) contain the following inventory of Nâgari lead punches: 1) Corps 10: 15 punches; 2) Corps 11: 59; 3) Corps 5/13: 244; 4) Corps 16: 541; 5) Corps 20: 52; 6) Corps 28: 46 punches. That is, the largest set consists of 541 punches, and the smallest - of 28 (used, for example, to start dictionary entries with a new syllable).

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Figure 10. Samples of the "ordinary" Schlegel font, part II

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Thus, this font wandered from city to city, and it seems that it even moved several times in the same direction. Designed in Paris, it did not fully return there until six years later. Commissioned in Berlin, it was then purchased by the Bonn Town Hall. It was exported to the printing house of Leiden and St. Petersburg, but again, as already mentioned, it was ordered in Kazan a few years after the first purchase, and after the University closed, it was taken to the then capital of the Empire.

That, it would seem, is the end of the story.

In Paris, the Cabinet des Poinçons, which once again moved to a new building, currently stores Viberf and Delafond punches [Glaister, 1979, p. 136] - this information from the British librarian G. Glaister from forty years ago was confirmed recently. But the boxes with punches are in the dust, judging by the photos provided to the author of this article, and therefore he decided to make public their glorious biography, without delaying its publication for another seven years to clarify controversial information or in search of missing sources.

list of literature

Vasiliev V. I. Dmitry Sergeevich Likhachev and the Book. To the 100th anniversary of his birth, Moscow: Nauka Publ., 2006.

Vigasin A. A. Izuchenie indiskoi kul'tury v Rossii v pervoi treti XIX v. [Study of Indian culture in Russia in the first third of the XIX century]. Yearbook, Moscow, GRVL; Nauka Publ., 1985.
Gasuns M. Y. The Wake of the Nāgarī Types in Europe // Oriental and African studies at the universities of St. Petersburg, Russia, and Europe. Current problems and prospects. International Scientific Conference, April 4-6, 2006: Abstracts of reports / Ed. by N. N. Dyakov, St. Petersburg: Saint Petersburg State University, Eastern Faculty, 2006.

Darmakirti. Nyāya-bindu / Ed. with Dharmottara's Tīkā by Th. Stcherbatsky. SPb.: Academic Imperiale des Sciences, 1918 (Bibliotheca Buddhica, VII).

Istoriya otechestvennogo vostokovedeniya do sredni XIX veka [History of Russian Oriental studies up to the middle of the 19th century].
Kochergina V. A. Nachal'nyj kurs sanskrita [The initial course of Sanskrit]. Leningrad: AN SSSR, 1956.

Loya Ya. V. Zhizn i deyatel'nost ' D. N. Kudryavskogo [Life and activity of D. N. Kudryavsky]. Issue 1, 1958, pp. 179-228.

Samples of Oriental fonts of the Academic Printing House, Leningrad: AN SSSR, 1928.
Samples of typefaces of the Printing House and Word Collection of the Imperial Academy of Sciences / Ed. on the occasion of the All-Russian manufactory Exhibition in St. Petersburg in 1870. Academy of Sciences, 1870.

Complete Collection of Laws of the Russian Empire (PSZRI) / Collection 1: from 1649 to 12 December 1825, vol. 24. N 18287. SPb.: Type. Second division. His Imperial Majesty's Own Chancellery, 1830-1851.

Rossiiskoe vostokovedenie XIX veka v litsakh [Russian Oriental Studies of the XIX century in faces]. vostokovedenie Publ., 2001.

Russian Biographical Dictionary of A. A. Polovtsov, Knappe - Kuchelbecker, St. Petersburg: Publishing House of the Academy of Sciences, 1908.

Sanskrit-Russian dictionary. Additions to the Proceedings of the Imperial Academy of Sciences, Vol. I. St. Petersburg, 1954; Notebook 2. St. Petersburg, 1855; Notebook 3. St. Petersburg, 1956 (unfinished).

Санскрiтская Антологiя. Ed. I (Sayings, epic passages, fairy tales, fables, descriptive and lyrical passages). Kazan, 1846.

Shofman A. S. Russkiy sanskritologiy P. Ya. Petrov [Russian Sanskritologist P. Ya. Petrov] / / Ocherki po istorii russkogo vostokovedeniya [Essays on the History of Russian Oriental Studies], Issue III, Moscow: AN SSSR, 1960.
Ehrlich V. A. Russkoyazychnye izdaniya XVIII veka o Vostoke i rossiiskie nemtsy [Russian-language publications of the 18th century about the East and Russian Germans]. Almanac of Humanitarian Studies. Issue 2 / Edited by V. I. Molodin and N. N. Pokrovsky. Novosibirsk: NSU Publishing House, 2000.

Bayer Th.S. Elementa Brahmanica, Tangutana et Mungalica // Commentarii Academiae Scientiarum Imperialis Petropolitanae. T. IV. SPb., 1735.

Boehtlingk O. Kâlidâsa's Ring-Çakuntala. Bonn: H.B. Koenig, 1842.

Böhtlingk, von O. Sanskrit-Chrestomathie. Zweite Auflage. SPb.: Buchdruckerei der Kaiserlichen Akademie der Wissenschaften, 1845.

Chézy A. Anthologie érotique d'Amarou: texte sanscrit. P.: Dondey-Dupré père et fils, 1831.

Faulmann C. Das Buch der Schrift: Enthaltend die Schriftzeichen und Alphabete alter Zeiten und Aller Völker des Erdkreises. Zweite Auflage. Wien: K. K. Hof- und Staatsdruckerei, 1880.

Fris O. Sanskrtská cítanka. Praha, 1954.

Frutiger A. Typefaces. The Complete Works / Ed. H. Osterer, P. Stamm, Swiss Foundation Type and Typography; Transl. by S. Dickel. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter, 2009.

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Glaister G. A. Glaister's Glossary of the Book: Terms Used in Papermaking / Printing, Bookbinding and Publishing with Notes on Illuminated Manuscripts and Private Presses. 2nd. Ed., completely revised. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1979.

Hauschild R. Die erste Publikation der indischen Nāgarī-Schriftzeichen in Europa / Durch A. Kircher und H. Roth // Wissenschaftliche Zeitschrift der Universität Jena. Jg. 5. Gesellschaftliche und Sprachwissenschaftliche Reihe. IV-V. 1955-1956.

Kirfel W. Die Anfänge des Sanskrit-Druckes in Europa // Zentralblatt für Bibliothekswesen. 1915. No 32.

Meztger F. L. Hiermit beehre ich mich... // Journal für Buchdruckerkunst, Schriftgiesβerein un verwandte Fächer. Braunschweig: Johann Heinrich Meyer. 1865. August.

Morgenroth W. Lehrbuch des Sanskrit: Grammatik, Lektionen, Glossar. Ed. 6., unveränd. Aufl. Leipzig: Verlag Enzyklopadie, 1989.

Naik B. S. Typography of Devanagari. Vol. 1. Bombay: Directorate of Languages Snippet, 1971.

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