The paper presents models of enamel erasure on the occlusive surface of permanent tooth crowns in five groups of ancient populations of Siberia and Central Asia. The results of their comparison indicate a significant variability of food strategies in the population with different forms of pastoral farming. It is directly reflected in the nature of tooth decay of different classes, which in all groups shows a greater relationship with the type of economy than with the average age of death in populations.

Keywords: cattle breeding, Xiongnu Pazyryk culture, Kamenskaya culture, enamel erasure.

Introduction

In different regions of the steppe part of the Central Asian region, the transition to nomadic cattle breeding as the main economic form took place at different times within the Late Bronze Age - Early Iron Age (X-IV centuries BC). During this period, the widespread distribution of its various variants is recorded, the local features of which were formed depending on local factors. conditions. In the strict sense of the word, the pastoral model of the economy implies full provision of food resources through the use of domestic animals. However, quite often archaeological data suggest the presence of other food sources in nomadic communities. This is indicated by the bones of wild animals in settlements, iconographic evidence of the existence of hunting, and traces of eating grain products identified as a result of paleobotanical studies and analysis of food residues on vessels (Jacobson 1993; Rosch, Fischer, Maerkle, 2005; Korolyuk, Polosmak, 2010). However, based on archaeological data, it is difficult to determine the set of available food resources and their quantitative ratio in each particular nomadic community. As a rule, the main base for reconstruction is household waste in settlements (see, for example: [Polos'mak, 1987, p. 111-112; Matveeva, 1993, p. 116-120; Mogilnikov, 1997, p. 96-97;

The work was supported by the Wenner Gren Foundation, the Natural Environment Research Council (UK), the American Center for Foreign Studies (CAORC), the National Museum of Natural History (Smithsonian Institution), and the Basic Research Program of the National Museum of Natural History (Smithsonian Institution). Presidium of the Russian Academy of Sciences "Traditions and Innovations in History and Culture". The authors express their gratitude to the staff of the National University of Mongolia and the Institute of Archeology of the Russian Academy of Sciences. Peter the Great (Kunstkamera) of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Institute of Archeology and Ethnography of the Siberian Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences.

Kosintsev and Bobkovskaya, 1997]) and remains of funerary food on burial grounds (Kosintsev and Razhev, 1997). The representativeness of these sources is limited: in the first case, the possible use of animal bones as a material for making household items, slaughtering some livestock for sale, etc.; in the second, the ritual nature of food that may not have been consumed in everyday life. Both settlement and funerary sites are extremely unlikely to detect grain products, even if they were a permanent element in the diet of the ancient population. In exceptional cases, their residues are detected in deposits on vessels, ceramic dough, oxides of metal dishes, i.e. in the presence of conditions that imply the preservation of organic materials. Their presence, firstly, is far from necessary on any monument under study, and, secondly, due to its exclusivity, it does not provide reliable information about the prevalence of this type of food. These factors reduce the objectivity of reconstructions of food systems based only on archaeological materials. A comprehensive approach involving paleoanthropological data is needed.

The most reliable information about the diet is provided by the isotopic composition of bone tissue, but its determination requires complex chemical analyses, the conditions for which are not available in any anthropological laboratory. An alternative source is data on the nature and degree of erasure of the enamel of the occlusive surface of permanent teeth. They were obtained for a significant number of populations in various regions of the world. Most studies have analyzed the pathologies of the dental system and the nature of enamel wear in hunter-gatherer societies, on the one hand, and agricultural groups, on the other (see, for example, [Smith P., 1972; Smith B., 1984; Kaifu, 1999; Eshed, Gopher, and Hershkovitz, 2006]). In addition, data on the nature of enamel wear were used to analyze the influence of intrapopulation factors, such as the content of sand in food and its general coarseness, on the accuracy of determining the age of death (see, for example: Miles, 1962; Molnar, 1971; Smith P., 1972; Tomenchuk and Mayhall 1979; Walker, Dean, Shapiro, 1991; Hillson, 1996; Mays, 2002].

The nature of enamel wear in the carriers of pastoral crops is relatively poorly studied. The main information boils down to the fact that increased abrasion in such groups can be associated with the use of roots and tubers of wild plants, agricultural products. In the first case, enamel erasure will be caused by roughness of the fibers, in the second-by exogenous impurities that get into food during grain grinding [Hillson, 1996]. In addition, the use of dried meat may have been the cause (Lane, 2006). Earlier it was suggested that early pastoralists should be more similar to societies with an appropriating type of economy (Machicek, 2011) than to agricultural ones by the nature of enamel wear. The similarity of food patterns between pastoralists and hunter-gatherers is due to the low population density and nomadic consumption of wild cereals and wild animal meat. However, enamel wear is lower in pastoral groups, which is associated with a high proportion of soft food, such as dairy products, in their diet and the use of more advanced methods of heat treatment of food [Tayles, Domett, Nelsen, 2000; Temple, Larsen, 2007].

The main objective of this study is to analyze models of tooth enamel erasure in several groups of pastoral populations of the Asian steppes in order to identify the variability of food strategies and factors that influenced the observed differences.

Materials and methods

We studied the characteristics of five craniological series from Western and Eastern Siberia and Mongolia (Figure 1). Four of them belong to the Early Iron Age, and one belongs to the Mongolian period, i.e., to the Middle Ages. By the beginning of the Iron Age, nomadic pastoralism was widespread in the territory under consideration (Rudenko, 1970; Volkov, 1995; DiCosmo, 2002; Honeychurch and Amartuvshin, 2006), but it was not the only economic model.

The earliest data relate to the Pazyryk archaeological culture (VII-III centuries BC). They were obtained by analyzing materials from the Bertek-1, Ala-Gail, Baratal, Barburgazy, Balyk-Sook, Kurai Steppe, Dzholin, Buraty burial grounds, as well as complexes in the Ulandryk and Yustyd River valleys. All these monuments are located on the territory of Gorny Altai, north of the Russian-Mongolian border. Judging by archaeological data, the main type of economy here was nomadic cattle breeding. The diet of the Pazyryk population was presumably determined by a combination of animal products, hunting and agriculture. Millstones found at the Bertek-1 burial ground and the results of paleobotanical studies of grain and seeds found at Pazyryk sites indicate the existence of the latter [Rudenko, 1970; Population of Gorny Altai..., 2003; Archaeological sites..., 2004]. Isotopic analysis of the hair of a person buried in the Pazyryk burial ground Verkh-Kaldzhin-2 showed,

Figure 1. Geographical location of the groups under consideration.

that the food was dominated by the proteins of land animals and fish [O'Connell, 2000].

The next chronological period (II century BC - I century AD) includes a series of Kamenskaya (Bolsherechenskaya) archaeological culture from the Verkh-Suzun-5 burial ground. It is located in the forest-steppe zone of the Upper Ob region, on the territory of the present-day Suzun district of the Novosibirsk region (Zhurba, 2001). The population that left the monument had a mixed economy: nomadic and semi-nomadic cattle breeding dominated, but agriculture and hunting for large mammals were also represented (Mogilnikov, 1997). The herd composition, presumably reconstructed from faunal remains from settlements, included cattle, horses, and sheep. The main objects of hunting were elk, deer and wild boar [Ibid., p. 97].

The third series characterizes the Xiongnu of Central Siberia. It includes materials from the Ivolginsky burial ground (III century BC - II century AD), located 16 km southwest of the city of Ulan-Ude (Buryatia). Ancient Chinese historical texts describe the Xiongnu economy as primarily based on cattle breeding [Watson, 1993], but excavations at the Ivolga hillfort, which is connected to the burial ground in a single complex, revealed not only the bones of domestic animals, but also grain silos and remains of ichthyofauna [Davydova, 1995, 1996].

The Xiongnu culture also includes a craniological series from the territory of Northern Mongolia, which includes materials from the Burkhan-Tolgoi monument (III century BC - II century AD), located in the valley of the Edzin-Gol River. During several field seasons, Hun burials with a characteristic circular layout were excavated here (Turbat, Amartuvshin, and Erdenbat, 2003; Turbat, 2006). Faunal remains from this burial ground belong mainly to domestic animals-sheep, goats, horses. There are also bones of a dog and a wild deer. Analysis of the ratio of nitrogen and carbon isotopes in the bone tissue collagen of buried animals showed that their diet consisted mainly of meat from land animals, with the inclusion of C3 and C4 plants [Machicek, 2011]. This suggests that the economic model of the group that left the monument is complex.

The latest series used dates back to the 12th-14th centuries AD. It includes materials from the Sharga and Tavan-Tolgoi burial grounds in Eastern Mongolia (Sukhbaatar). The funeral rite is typical for burials of this period in Mongolia. Burial grounds consist of relatively small burials marked on the ground surface with round or oval arrangements of rough stones (Batsaikhan, 2003, 2006). Information about the diet of medieval Mongolian nomads comes mainly from two sources. Part of it was obtained during research on the territory of Karakorum, the ancient capital of the Mongol Empire. Archaeological evidence has been found for the consumption of several types of nuts and fruits, both local and imported [Rosch, Fischer, Maerkle, 2005; Oyuntuya, Rosch, 2007], but it is not yet clear what their role was in the general diet and how accessible they were to the inhabitants of the peripheral regions of the empire. More complete information is contained in the work of G. Rubruk, who traveled through the Mongol Empire in the middle of the XIII century. According to him, the Mongols " eat indiscriminately all their carrion, and among such a large number of cattle and herds, quite understandably, many animals die. However, in the summer, while they have kumiss, that is, mare's milk, they do not care about other food. If, therefore, an ox and a horse die in their midst, they dry the meat, cutting it into thin pieces and hanging it in the sun and wind, and these pieces immediately dry without salt and without spreading any stench. They use horse intestines to make sausages better than pork, and they eat them fresh. The rest of the meat is preserved for the winter" [Rubruk, 1997, p. 95]. As for the products of agriculture and hunting, they were also widespread. G. Rubruk points out that the Mongols hunt "get a significant part of their food", and "important gentlemen have estates in the south, from which millet and flour are brought to them for the winter. The poor get it for themselves in exchange for sheep and skins" [Ibid., p. 97].

Table 1. Number of surveyed series

In all series, the nature of enamel erasure of the occlusive surface of the crowns of permanent teeth of adult individuals was analyzed. Since the degree of wear is directly related to age [Miles, 1962; Walker, Dean, Shapiro, 1991; Mays, 2002], buried bodies for which precise definitions have not been obtained (for example, those belonging to the category older than 50 years) were excluded from the analysis. Gender and age were determined based on the condition of the cranial sutures and the morphology of the pelvic bones, according to generally accepted methods (Ubelaker, 1989; Buikstra and Ubelaker, 1994).

A total of 1,915 teeth of 143 individuals were analyzed (Table 1). The nature of enamel wear was determined by the eight-point Smith scale (Smith B., 1984). For each series, the average erasure score in each class of teeth was calculated. It was defined as the quotient of the sum of the erasure points of all teeth of this class in the series and the number of teeth examined. A similar method was used in the work of Chinese researchers [Liu et al., 2010], although they calculated the average values based directly on the score values of the trait, and not on their frequency.

Intergroup comparison was carried out for the total series, which includes both male and female skulls, because the low number of samples does not allow for a full-fledged statistical study for each sex separately. For the same reason, data on the right and left sides of the dental arch were combined.

The obtained values were processed using intra-and inter-group statistical analysis. Pairwise comparison was carried out on the basis of the T-test, the general comparison was carried out using multi - variance analysis (ANOVA). In all cases, the differences were considered significant at p < 0.05.

Results and discussion

For the frontal teeth of the upper jaw (incisors, canines), the highest enamel erasure scores were recorded in the Ivolginsky burial ground (I ¹) and Burkhan-Tolgoi (I ²) series. In the group from Verkh-Suzun-5, the highest values were recorded for premolars and molars, while the lowest values were recorded for incisors and canines. The lowest upper molar enamel erasure scores were obtained for a combined sample from Eastern Mongolia (^M1 and ^M3) and a series from Burkhan-Tolgoi (^M2). The greatest similarity is observed between the carriers of the Pazyryk culture and the group from Burkhan-Tolgoi (Table 2, Fig. 2).

For all groups, with the exception of the group from Eastern Mongolia, similar indicators of mandibular incisor enamel wear were obtained*. In the Mongolian series, the lowest score was recorded for all lower teeth. The maximum indicators of enamel effacement of molars and premolars are observed in the group from Verkh-Suzun-5. The next position is occupied by a series from the Ivolginsky burial ground (premolars and M ₁). As well as on the upper jaw, there is a similarity of the average values for all teeth in the carriers of the Pazyryk culture and the group from Burkhan-Tolgoi (Table 3, Fig. 3).

The ANOVA test did not reveal statistically significant differences between the compared series in the degree of erasure of the enamel of the upper teeth. However, they were found for the front teeth/premolars of the lower jaw and the total values for all lower teeth (see Tables 2, 3).

Pairwise comparison based on the T-test revealed significant differences between several groups (Tables 4, 5). According to the degree of erasure of the upper frontal teeth and premolars, the series from Eastern Mongolia and the Ivolginsky burial ground significantly differ, while the upper molars are represented by groups from Verkh - Suzun-5 and Burkhan-Tolgoi. Statistically significant differences in the scores for frontal teeth and premolars of the lower jaw are observed between the series of Kamenskaya and Pazyryk cultures, from Burkhan-Tolgoi and Eastern Mongolia, from the Ivolginsky burial ground and Eastern Mongolia. According to the degree of erasure of the lower molars, the groups from Eastern Mongolia and Upper Suzun-5 significantly differ.

Thus, according to the results of intergroup and pairwise statistical comparison, the most pronounced specifics were shown by the Kamenskaya culture series of the Early Iron Age from the Verkh-Suzun-5 burial ground and the medieval sample from Eastern Mongolia. In the Kamenskaya series, there are noticeable fluctuations in the wear scores of the upper teeth (in particular, the lateral incisors are worn much less than the medial ones, canines, premolars and molars). Its differences from others in this regard

* There is no correlation between the erasure indicators and the percentage in populations of individuals of older age categories.

Table 2. Average enamel erasure scores in each class of teeth and ANOVA test results.

Upper jaw

Table 3. Average enamel erasure scores in each class of teeth and ANOVA test results.

Lower jaw

Note. Statistically significant results are highlighted.

See Table 4. Results of pairwise comparison of average erasure indicators.

Upper jaw

Note. Statistically significant results are highlighted.

2. Average enamel erasure scores in each class of teeth (upper jaw), a-Verkh-Suzun-5; b - Ivolginsky burial ground; c - Eastern Mongolia; d - Pazyryk culture; e-Burkhan-Tolgoi.

Figure 3. Average enamel erasure scores in each class of teeth (lower jaw).

See Figure 2 for additional information.

See Table 5. Results of pairwise comparison of average erasure indicators.

Lower jaw

Note. Statistically significant results are highlighted.

This indicator may be explained by the small number of samples of frontal teeth. The nature of molar wear suggests that the food of the Upper Suzun population was harder or contained more exogenous abrasive impurities than the food of other groups studied. This may be a consequence of the higher role of agricultural products in the diet of native speakers of the Kamensk culture, in comparison with nomadic societies. In this case, the degree of abrasion of the enamel could be affected by the content of sand and abrasive particles in them, which inevitably get into food during the grinding of grain. Another explanation may be the incompleteness of the transition to a pastoral farming model among the population who left the Verkh-Suzun-5 burial ground, and, as a result, a significant percentage of wild plants and hunting products in the diet, as well as imperfect methods of heat treatment of food. The earliest date of the monument considered and its location on the border of the forest-steppe zone allow us to consider this assumption more likely.

The specifics of the series from Eastern Mongolia can be explained by several reasons. The culture and lifestyle of the medieval Mongols are almost a reference model of nomads, so the proportion of meat and dairy products in their diet should be the highest. In addition, with the passage of time and the improvement of heat treatment methods, there is a general decrease in the hardness of food of ancient groups. In addition, this series comes from an area with a limited set of food resources, which probably did not allow actively diversifying the meat and dairy diet with plant foods.

The maximum similarity was found between the characteristics of the Pazyryk culture series and the sample from the Burkhan-Tolgoi burial ground. It is caused, firstly, by similar ecological conditions of existence of these groups and, accordingly, by a partial coincidence of the set of available food resources, and secondly, apparently, by the same social status of the buried. A series from the Ivolginsky burial ground shows some similarity with these two groups. The general appearance of the curves illustrating the ratio of wear scores in each class of teeth is approximately the same. However, the quantitative indicators of enamel wear in this group are consistently higher than in the Pazyryk and Xiongnu peoples of Mongolia, which is most likely due to its specificity. Ivolginsky burial ground, as already mentioned, belongs to the Ivolginsky settlement-one of the largest settlements of the Xiongnu of Transbaikalia. According to many researchers, this population was heterogeneous in origin and was a complex conglomerate that included both the Xiongnu component and migrants from China, the Far East, and other territories that depended on the Xiongnu [Davydova, 1985, 1995; Kradin, 2007, p.127]. The inhabitants of the Ivolginsky settlement provided the Xiongnu with agricultural and handicraft products. It is established that most of them were engaged in agriculture, sedentary animal husbandry, and fishing [Davydova, 1985, pp. 68-74], so in the strict sense this series characterizes not a nomadic, but a sedentary group with a complex economy. The consumption of agricultural products here, according to archaeological data, was very high, so the increased points of tooth enamel wear in the series under consideration are most likely due to the use of flour with abrasive impurities or poorly processed grain.

In most of the examined series, there is a slight deterioration of the front teeth. As a rule, a high degree of erasure of incisors and canines indicates their compensatory use due to pathological conditions of the maxillary apparatus (flux, lifetime tooth loss) or their use as a tool or "third hand" when performing various tasks. In the groups considered, there were only a few individuals who showed severe wear of the front teeth, so the influence of these factors can only be assumed at the individual level. The maximum points of erasure of the incisors and canines of the lower jaw were noted in the series from Verkh-Suzun-5. However, there are minimal scores for the upper front teeth. Since this sample is very small, individual deviations could have a significant impact on the overall score. In the absence of data on the nature of erasure of the frontal teeth in other groups of carriers of the Kamenskaya culture, nothing can be said. It is likely that the wear pattern of incisors and canines in the Verkh-Suzuna-5 series reflects the actual strategy of their use.

Significant differences in the degree of obliteration of the frontal teeth are observed between the series from the Ivolginsky burial ground and the medieval sample from Eastern Mongolia. On the one hand, this can be explained by the high specific weight of agricultural products in the diet of the Ivolga group. On the other hand, increased enamel abrasion has a complex etiology and is rarely determined by only one factor [Molnar, 1971], so if there is not enough comparative data and if the differences are significant only for these two series, categorical conclusions are premature.

Conclusion

The results of the study indicate a significant variability of food strategies among the population of the steppe zone of Asia, practicing various forms of cattle breeding. This is reflected in the nature of erasure of the enamel of the occlusive surface of the teeth. While there are some general trends due to the significant proportion of meat and dairy products in the diet of all the groups considered, serious discrepancies were recorded in a number of indicators. Despite the fact that the results obtained are only preliminary, they made it possible to characterize in a first approximation the effect of differences in food strategies on the nature of tooth crown enamel wear in pastoral communities.

Common to all series are slower erasure of the front teeth compared to the molars and greater erasure of the upper premolars and molars relative to the lower ones. The maximum differences between groups with different types of economy are observed in the degree of wear of the first molars of both jaws. The diversity of the diet recorded by materials from Verkh-Suzun-5 and Ivolginsky burial ground is primarily marked by the acceleration of enamel erasure of these particular teeth.

It is still difficult to reconstruct a specific set of food products in each of the examined populations without analyzing the isotopic composition of the bone tissue of buried people, but the results of the study allow us to reasonably say that it was more diverse among the carriers of the Kamenskaya culture and the Ivolga group than among the Pazyryk and Xiongnu people of Mongolia. In addition, it is highly likely that the content of abrasive elements in the food of the Mongolian population decreased by the Middle Ages. In general, the results obtained demonstrate a significant differentiation of local food strategies in pastoral communities and, consequently, a high dynamism of adaptive strategies among the steppe population of Asia.

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The article was submitted to the Editorial Board on 15.03.12. The final version was published on 21.03.12.

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